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India, the largest democracy in the world, gained its independence from British colonial rule in 1947. In 1950, the Constitution of India came into effect, forming the basis of the governance of the country. The Constitution draws on the rich heritage of Indian politics and thought and reflects the country's historical experience. Henceforth, the formation of the Constitution is an amalgamation of politics. The East India Company, which came to India in the 1600s, took control of many administrative powers in 1765 (after the Battle of Buxar, the British received taxes and civil rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa). The trading company since then consolidated its power in such a way as to reach the nooks and corners of our country. During the Company’s Rule (1753-1858), the British Parliament passed several Acts to control, regulate, and monitor the East India Company's (EIC) activities. The company decides to change and amend the terms and conditions of this statute every 20 years. The Sepoy Rebellion caused the British Parliament to put an end to the activities of the East India Company. Later, the power, lands, and revenues of the Indian government were transferred to the British Crown (1858-1947). During this period of roughly 200 years, a plethora of Acts were passed to regulate the functions of the country which laid the foundation stone on which our constitution was built. The idea of a Constituent Assembly was put forward for the first time by MN Roy. In 1935, the Indian National Congress, for the first time, officially called for a Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution for India. The demand for a Constituent Assembly was accepted for the first time by the British through their ‘August offer’ of 1940. Eventually, a constituent assembly was established under the provisions of the Cabinet Mission Plan(1946). The Constituent Assembly of India, which had its first meeting on 1st December 1946, was again reassembled on 14th August 1947 and started the process of framing a new Constitution for India based on complete independence. It appointed a large number of committees such as the Union Constitution Committee, the Union Powers Committee, and the Committee on Fundamental Rights, etc., and discussed the reports of these Committees thoroughly. On 29th August 1947, it appointed a Drafting Committee under the chairmanship Dr B. R., Ambedkar, which came out with the Draft Constitution of India in February 1948. The Constituent Assembly next met in November 1948 to make a clause-by-clause analysis of the Draft Constitution. The second reading of the clauses was completed by 17th October 1949 and the third reading by 26th November 1949 when the Constitution was adopted. The Constitution then finally came into force on 26th January 1950. The historical underpinnings of the Indian Constitution reflect India's diverse social and political experiences. The Constitution draws on India’s indigenous traditions, colonial experiences, and Western political thought, and to this day has evolved through amendments to reflect changing aspirations and challenges.

The theories of the origin of the solar system can be divided into 2 groups, viz., Evolutionary theories, & Catastrophic theories. The theories which suggest, that the planets formed during the evolution of the Sun are called Evolutionary theories, e.g. The Nebular Hypothesis. Whereas, the Catastrophic theories are those which state that planets are formed by some special accident or catastrophe, such as the close approach of two stars or by the collision of two stars, e.g., Planetesimal & gaseous tidal hypothesis. 1. Evolution of Earth & earlier theories: The origin of Earth took place around 4.54 billion years ago. The earlier theories regarding the origin & evolution of Earth are the Nebular Hypothesis, Planetesimal Hypothesis, Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis, Binary Star Hypothesis, & Gas Dust Cloud Hypothesis. Whereas, the modern theories of the origin of the Earth are the Big Bang Theory, Star Formation Theory, Planet Formation Theory, etc. The evolution of Earth denotes how the Lithosphere, Atmosphere, & Hydrosphere of the Earth were created. It also describes the evolution of life on Earth, which took place around 3.5 billion years ago. 1.1. Nebular hypothesis: • This hypothesis is put forward by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1755 and restudied by Pierre Laplace in 1796, who named it the ‘Solar Nebular Disk Model’. • This hypothesis states that the sun & planets including Earth have formed from a disc- shaped rotating nebula (a vast cloud of hot gas). • Initially, there was a hot gaseous cloud, rotating along its axis, which lost its energy by radiation and became cooler. As a result, the nebula gets contracted inward and its rotation speed increases to conserve angular momentum. Due to this, the centrifugal force in the equatorial zone also increases thereby causing the nebula to bulge out in the equatorial zone. • Due to the continuous cooling & contraction of the nebula, the centrifugal force becomes greater than the gravitational attraction acting inward. As a result, the gaseous ring was separated out. • Due to the reputation of the above process, successive rings of gaseous material were thrown out from the central mass. • Finally, the rings condense into planets. Planetoids (a body resembling a planet) form when such rings get broken into many small fragments. • The central mass of the nebula continues to shrink & finally formed the Sun. Terrestrial planets like Mercury, Venus, and Earth, were formed near the centre of the disc. They had metallic components like iron & nickel, whereas, the planets like Jupiter, Neptune, and Saturn, were formed on the cooler edges. Demerits:- • It could not explain the energy distribution and doesn’t satisfy the principle of conservation of angular momentum in the solar system. • This theory was rejected when it is learnt that the angular momentum of the solar system is concentrated in the planets and not in the sun. • The process of condensation of highly rarified gas into rings rather than its dissipation into space is questioned. • It fails to explain the observed differences in the density, size & mass of the planets.

Uttarakhand- Devbhoomi, the land of gods. Uttarakhand is also a border state. In all the border states, right from Kashmir to Kanyakumari, from Kutch to Kamroop, we can see the problematic nature of border states. These problems don’t exist on their own, rather they have been created and it is imperative to understand the reasons behind them. A lot of migration is taking place in the border state of Uttarakhand which, in turn, is creating a vacuum. We need to take care that this vacuum is filled only by Indians or those who have an immense passion for India, not by those people who want to damage our security. We have seen the pitiable condition of Kashmir, Punjab, borders of UP and Bihar, North East, Tamil Nadu, and Lakshadweep. Uttarakhand shouldn’t face the same consequences so we need to really work hard here. Uttarakhand requires excessive work on education; I have been travelling the remote areas of Uttarakhand for a long! The children here have a great passion for receiving education. Most of them come from an army background so their thoughts are completely different from others. However, they are not aware of national integration exposure. NCERT, CERT and many other institutions are working here. We too, through Paavan Chintan Dhara Ashram, are working here. Those who reside in the border areas are not ordinary people. They are half soldiers even though they are civilians. I also consider myself a native of Uttarakhand as I have spent 26 years of my life here. This is my hometown. Uttarakhand may not be my body’s home but it definitely is my soul’s home. I started my spiritual journey from here. In 1981, when I was a very small child, I ran away from home and began my spiritual journey from Uttarakhand. My journey still continues. If I am able to do anything for this place, I will consider myself fortunate. I am working on education. About 1600+ children are being educated in 21 centres through our ashram. This isn’t formal education. It’s informal education and that education which makes a person humane and that too a valiant one and most importantly it inculcates Indianness to the brim in that child. I heartily thank all of you and salute again with “Jai Hind.”

The case of India’s geopolitics is a very complicated one, arising due to her unique geography. India has a vast 7516.6 km coastline and it shares a territorial border of 15106.7 km with seven different nations and a sea border with two other nations. India’s neighbors are Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Maldives. Pakistan: Located in the northwest of India, it shares a border of 3323 km with India. Once a part of India, it has been continuously in a tussle with India since its formation in 1947. It occupies an illegal territory of 78000 sq. km. known as Pakistan-occupied-Kashmir (PoK) and has fought 4 major wars with India. It shares its border with Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Its capital is Islamabad and its official language is Urdu. China: It lies in the north of India and shares a vast border of 3488 km with India. India and China have highly strained relations and China poses a huge threat to India in terms of both border and internal security. It shares its border with Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Its capital is Beijing and its official language is Mandarin. Bangladesh: It is located in the East of India and shares the longest border with India 4096.7 km. The borders are very porous and have resulted in huge migration for decades. It shares its border with West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Assam. Its capital is Dhaka and its official language is Bengali. Afghanistan: Located in the Northwest of India, it shares a small border of 106 km with India. India had good diplomatic relations with Afghanistan after 1947. It shares its border with J&K (POK Part). Its capital is Kabul and its official language is Dari and Pashto. Sri Lanka: It shares a sea border with India and shares common cultural roots with India. After independence, Sri Lanka faced a major fight between Tamils and Sinhalese. Its capitals are Colombo and Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, and its official currency is Sri Lankan Rupee. Nepal: Sharing common cultural roots with India, it is a small country that has an area of 1,47,181 square kilometers. It shares a border of 1751 Km. with Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. The Indo-Nepal Treaty of Friendship was signed in 1950 and was readjusted in 2014. Its capital is Kathmandu and its official language is Nepalese. Bhutan: It is a small peaceful country with an area of 38, 394 sq km. It shares a border of 699 km with West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam. The Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1949 later amended in 2007 played a major role in maintaining bilateral Indo-Bhutan relations. Its capital is Thimpu and its official language is Dzongkha. Myanmar: Located in the East of India, it shares a border of 1643 km with Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland. The borders are very porous and are often used by the Maoist insurgents to create instability in India. In 1951, India and Myanmar signed a treaty of friendship and recently India established ‘Twin Track Diplomacy’ with it. Its capital is Naypyidaw and its official language is Burmese. Maldives: It is a small island nation located in the southwest of India and shares a sea border with India. In 1972, India established a CDA mission and a resident High Commissioner in 1980. Its capital is Male and its official language is Dhivehi.

Pre-historic Period also known as the Old Stone Age is the period in which stones were used as tools. The period displays no signs of development of script/writing. The only sources of this era are the archaeological excavations. The Palaeolithic Period (Famous sites: Sohan River) The Palaeolithic Period is the earliest period that developed in the Pleistocene period also known as the ice age. Due to the cold weather conditions human life ceased to exist except in the tropical regions. During this period humans used unpolished tools such as hand axes, choppers, and blades made of quartzite. This period is divided into three phases based on the stone tools: Early Paleolithic (5,00,000- 50,000 BCE), Middle Paleolithic (3,00,000- 40,000 BCE), and Late Palaeolithic (40,000-10,000 BCE). In the late Paleolithic, the climate became comparatively warmer and homo sapiens first appeared on the planet at the end of this phase. The Mesolithic Period (Famous sites: Bagor, Adamgarh) The Mesolithic Period was a transitional period from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic. There was a shift in the pattern of economy, hunting & gathering, lifestyle, fishing, and the use of microlith that can be traced in the famous Bhimbetka paintings. The paintings of Bhimbetka provide information about fishing, dancing, community living, and animal domestication, and x-ray-style paintings are also evident in various paintings. They made paintings in proportionality, used red and green colors and the density of images also reflects their knowledge. The Neolithic Period (Famous sites: Burzahom, Koldihawa, Paiyampalli, Chirand) The Neolithic Period was the last phase of the Stone Age that saw a significant change in agriculture due to the changing environmental conditions. A few of its characteristics are: Food Production: before this period men were hunters, food gatherers, and herders Beginning of agriculture: wheat, barley, cotton, (evidence of rice husk- Kolidhwa, Bihar) Invention, Innovation, and Development: Polished stone tools such as celts, and potter’s wheel. Development of language. Rectangular and circular Pit House Changing patterns of occupation, religious beliefs, and cremation practices. The Chalcolithic period (3000-500 BCE) marked the use of the first metal i.e. copper with stone tools. This culture was mainly seen in the Pre-Harappan phase, but in many places, it extended to the Post-Harappan phase too. Kayatha, Ahar, Jorwe, and Rangpur are some of the famous cultures of this period. Few Stone Age practices such as worshipping triangular stones are still practised by the Kol and Baiga tribes. Society, agricultural practices, art and culture, innovations, etc. are more developed in the present context but the time from where the Stone Age belongs was way ahead of its time. References A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Higher Secondary First Year, Tamil Nadu Board Ancient And Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya

Science and Technology in Ancient India: Astronomy and Geometry were one of the most focused areas in ancient India. It became the base of many other civilizations like the Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, etc. The famous Pythagoras Theorem can be found in Baudhayan’s Sulba Sutras centuries before the existence of Pythagoras. Most notable mathematical inventions include the concept of Zero, the decimal system, and various developments in the fields of algebra, trigonometry, etc. Important mathematical treatises of that time are ‘Aryabhatiya’ by Aryabhatt, ‘Brihat Samhita’ by Varahmir, ‘Brahma Sputa Siddhant’ by Brahmagupt, ‘Ganit Sara Sangraha’ by Mahaviracharya etc. Charak and Sushrut have been pioneers in the fields of medicine and Surgery respectively. Their works, ‘Charaksamhita’ and ‘Sushrutsamhita’ are a subject of research even today. Science and Technology in Medieval India: Due to a series of foreign invasions, Medieval India saw a massive decline in the development of science. Important mathematical works include ‘Lilavati Kammdipidika’, ‘Suddhantadipika’ by Gangadhar, ‘Ganitasara’ by Sridhara, and ‘Lilavati’ by Bhaskaracharya, etc. Nilkantha Somayaji wrote his famous ‘Tantrasamgraha’. He also developed a planetary model, the same model was years later presented by Tycho Brahe and is today known as the Tychonic system. Madhava of Sangamagrama laid the foundations for the development of calculus and was a pioneer of infinite series. He gave a very accurate value of pi and gave the famous expansion series for it which is today known as the Madhava-Leibniz series. Science and Technology in Modern India: Phase I (1947-1967) This was the era of induction of IITs in India, followed by various ICT progressions like Radio Broadcasting in 1927 and TCS in 1968. Famous satellites like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II, Apple satellite, Rohini satellite, and INSAT I-B were launched. Phase II (1967-1987) India’s first nuclear test Operation ‘Smiling Buddha’ was held on 18th May 1974 at Pokhran, Rajasthan. With America’s support, India began its first nuclear power generation at Tarapur Atomic Station. Development in Agriculture systems: Rise of Green Revolution, giving high-yield food and eminent use of chemical fertilizers. Phase III (1987-Present) Establishment of the Department of Biotechnology and Department of Ocean Development under the Department of Science and Technology. India entered the space mission with the successful launch of Chandrayaan-I on 22 Oct 2008 and later launched Chandrayaan-II on 22 July 2019. ISRO pioneered Mangalyaan on 5 November 2013, which was the second space mission of India, making India the first Asian nation to reach the Mars Orbit.

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and the physical environment they are part of; it seeks to understand the essential relationships between plants and animals and the world around them. 18th Century Arcadian Ecology, is the first school of thought, that promotes a simple, humble life for man and a harmonious relationship between man and nature. Imperial Ecology school of thought, believes in establishing man’s domination over nature by the application of reason and hard effort. Carl-Linnaeus (1758) is known for giving the science of taxonomy, or the study of naming and classifying organisms. 19th Century Alexander von Humboldt (1804) in his paper Idea for Plant Geography, presented a large number of plant species, and others, based on the geographic distribution using geological data. Many scholars regard him as the father of ecology. Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution and adaptation in the year 1859. The theory of natural selection, famously known as survival of the fittest, is credited with Charles Darwin’s admiration. Charles Darwin reported all of his observations, postulated mechanisms, and discoveries in his book 'On the Origin of Species' by means of Natural Selection, together with Alfred Russel Wallace. Ecology terminology was introduced by German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Eduard Seuss coined the word Biosphere; to describe the system made up of living beings and their surroundings in 1875. Eugen Warming founded the field of Biogeography in 1895. The study of the geographic distribution of living organisms is known as biogeography. 20th Century Vladimir Vernadsky, in his book, The Biosphere, described the biosphere as the worldwide ecological system that includes all living beings and their relationships, as well as their interactions with the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere in 1926. The ecosystem was coined by Arthur Tansley in 1935 to describe the biological community of interacting species and their physical environment. In 1953, the first ecology textbook was written by Eugene Odum and Howard Odum, and thereafter ecology became a university course. James Lovelock 1970 coined the phrase Gaia, which refers to the concept that the entire earth is one living entity capable of ensuring its survival even if people destroy it. In 1978, Conservation Biology was created as a study devoted to environmental management. The history of Ecology in India includes ecological principles mentioned in ancient texts such as Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, etc. References: https://prepp.in/news/e-492-history-of-ecology-environment-notes https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ecology

Transition to Agriculture and Pastoralism The prehistoric age witnessed a remarkable shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural and pastoral communities. The transition to agriculture and pastoralism in prehistoric times occurred around 10,000 years ago. This shift involved the domestication of plants and animals, leading to the emergence of agricultural and pastoral practices. Notable archaeological sites, such as Jericho in the Levant and Çatalhöyük in Anatolia, provide evidence of early farming settlements. Daily Life in Farming Communities Farming communities of the prehistoric age relied on agriculture as their primary means of sustenance. The adoption of tools, such as the plow, facilitated more efficient land cultivation and crop harvesting. Excavations at sites like Tell Aswad in Syria and Jarmo in Iraq reveal evidence of early farming practices, including the cultivation of cereals. Socially, farming communities developed hierarchical structures, with leaders emerging to oversee agricultural activities and coordinate community affairs. Religion and belief systems played a crucial role in farming communities, as evident in the construction of monumental structures like Stonehenge in England or Gobekli Tepe in Turkey, which likely had ceremonial and astronomical purposes. Daily Life in Pastoral Communities Pastoral communities of the prehistoric age centered their existence on the rearing of livestock. The ability to move herds to different grazing areas in search of fresh pasture was essential for their survival. Excavations at sites like Mehrgarh in Pakistan and Tepe Yahya in Iran provide insights into early pastoral practices. Pastoralists developed specialized knowledge of animal husbandry, selectively breeding livestock for desired traits. Livestock provided them with food, clothing, and materials for tools and shelter. Additionally, pastoral communities engaged in hunting and gathering to supplement their resources. Socially, pastoral communities exhibited egalitarian structures, with decision-making shared among group members. Leadership was based on expertise and experience, and social interactions were governed by cooperation and reciprocity. In the Context of Pastoral and Farming Communities in Prehistoric India: Early Agricultural Practices In prehistoric India, the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE) stands as a remarkable example of early agricultural practices. Excavations at sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have revealed the presence of well-planned cities with sophisticated agricultural systems. The Indus Valley people cultivated a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, rice, and cotton, utilizing advanced irrigation techniques to support their agricultural activities. Farming Communities Farming communities in prehistoric India thrived along river valleys, taking advantage of fertile soils and reliable water sources. These communities established permanent settlements, utilizing their agricultural knowledge to sustain their populations. Farming tools made of stone and bone, such as sickles and hoes, have been discovered at various archaeological sites, providing evidence of early agricultural practices. Pastoral Communities In addition to farming communities, prehistoric India was also home to pastoral communities that relied on animal husbandry. These communities were nomadic or semi-nomadic, moving their herds in search of suitable grazing lands. Pastoral communities played a vital role in the socio-economic fabric of ancient India. They provided essential resources such as milk, meat, leather, and wool. Additionally, the nomadic lifestyle of pastoralists facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural practices between different regions. Impact on Human Civilization The transition to settled agricultural and pastoral communities during the prehistoric age laid the foundation for human civilization. Surplus food production supported population growth and the establishment of permanent settlements. Specialization in crafts and trade emerged, leading to complex economic systems. The accumulation of wealth facilitated the rise of social stratification and the formation of organized states and institutions. The shift from a nomadic lifestyle to settled communities marked a significant turning point in human history, shaping the trajectory of human civilization for millennia to come. References: 1. Bogaard, A. (2004). Neolithic Farming in Central Europe: An Archaeobotanical Study of Crop Husbandry Practices. Routledge. 2. Hodder, I. (2006). The Leopard's Tale: Revealing the Mysteries of Çatalhöyük. Thames & Hudson. 3. Renfrew, C., & Bahn, P. (2008). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. Thames & Hudson. 4. Zeder, M. A. (2011). The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East. Current Anthropology, 52(S4), S221-S235. 5. Meadow, R. H. (1996). The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. UCL Press. 6. Possehl, G. L. (2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. AltaMira Press. 7. Shaffer, J. G. (1995). Cultural Tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology. In J. Mark Kenoyer (Ed.), Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. 8. Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Marg Publications. 9. Ratnagar, S. (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley. Tulika Books. 10. Misra, V. N. (2001). Prehistoric Human Colonization of India. Journal of Biosciences, 26(4), 491-531.

India and Nepal share a unique relationship having a common cultural and religious background along with historical ties dating back to at least the Ramayan era. The friendship between the two nations is characterized by open borders and deep-rooted people-to-people contacts with free movement of people across the border. Nepal shares a border of ~1850 km with five Indian states – Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is a landlocked country, surrounded by India from three sides and one side is open towards Tibet which has very limited vehicular access. In modern history, The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1950, forms the basis of the special relations that exist between India and Nepal. As per provisions of the treaty, Nepalese citizens avail facilities and opportunities on par with Indian citizens in India and vice-versa. The treaty permits the free movement of people and goods between the two nations along with a close relationship and collaboration on matters of defense and foreign affairs. As per government estimates, nearly 8 million Nepalese citizens live and work in India and ~6 lakh Indians are living/domiciled in Nepal. Further, the two nations not only share an open border and unhindered movement of people, but they also have close bonds through marriages and familial ties, popularly known as Roti-Beti ka Rishta, especially in border areas of both nations. Many Nepalese work in the Indian Armed Forces. No wonder, both nations are natural partners. India has its Embassy in Kathmandu and a Consulate General in Birgunj (south-central part of Nepal) while Nepal has its Embassy in New Delhi and a Consulate General in Kolkata. Both countries share multiple multilateral forums such as BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal), BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation), Non-Aligned Movement, and SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), etc. In consonance with the ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has visited Nepal five times since 2014 and similarly, Nepalese Prime Ministers have also made regular visits to India. Nepal’s democratic journey In modern history, Nepal was practically ruled by Prime Ministers called Ranas till 1951 who was ousted by King Tribhuvan with the support of the Nepali Congress Party (NCP). Then the cabinet system was introduced and political parties were brought into government. The nation witnessed a period of struggle from 1951 to 1959. Then, in 1960 King Mahendra suspended the constitution and introduced the panchayat system of Villages, Districts, and National Councils. In 1990 pro-democracy agitation grew stronger and Kind Birendra agreed to the new constitution. The first democratic elections were held in 1991 which were won by NCP. 1995 saw the emergence of civil unrest in Nepal and anti-India sentiments mainly fuelled by the Unified Marxist Leninist Party. The unrest turned to Maoist violence and dragged on for more than a decade. In 2001, the Royal family including King Birendra, Queen Aishwarya, and several other royal members were killed. King’s brother Gyanendra was crowned as the new King. In 2006, a Comprehensive Peace Agreement was reached with Maoists leading to the end of decade decade-long insurgency. In 2007 monarchy was abolished, the Interim constitution was adopted and Nepal finally became a republic in 2008. After tremendous delays, Nepal accepted a constitution in September 2015 which it holds to date. Trade Relations India is Nepal’s Largest trade partner, the highest source of foreign direct investment (FDI), transit for almost all of the third-country trade of Nepal (as Nepal is landlocked), a major supplier of petroleum, and, one of the top sources of inward remittances. In 2021-22, the annual trade between Nepal and India stood at ~11 billion USD. The data for bilateral trade (in USD million) is as below: The bilateral framework for trade is currently anchored on the India-Nepal Treaty of Trade and Agreement of Co-operation to Control Unauthorized Trade – 2009 giving Nepal unilateral duty-free access to the Indian market. Also, India is the largest source of investment in Nepal. As per Nepal Rashtra Bank (NRB) data it accounts for more than 32% of the total FDI stock of Nepal, which is nearly 520 million USD till mid-2020. There are ~150 Indian companies operating in Nepal including ITC, Dabur, Hindustan Unilever, VSNL, TCIL, MTNL, State Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Life Insurance Corporation of India etc.

Introduction Independent India’s Citizenship Laws can be traced to 1955. The Citizenship Act provided citizenship to those born in India and offered two ways for non-Indians to obtain Indian citizenship: people from the rest of undivided India would become eligible to apply for citizenship after seven years of residency in India, whereas those from countries other than undivided India would become eligible after twelve years of residency in India. The Citizenship Act was amended in 1985 in the aftermath of the Assam movement and then subsequently in 1992, 2003, 2005, and 2015. The 2003 amendment, in particular, introduced the notion of “illegal immigrants” (defined as those without proper travel documents or those who had overstayed the term of their Indian visas) into the act and made them ineligible to apply for citizenship through registration or naturalization. These illegal immigrants could be deported and/or jailed. The 2003 amendment also made it mandatory to ultimately compile a National Register of Citizens (NRC) – a move that was then supported by the Congress and Left parties. The latest amendment to the Citizenship Act came into being on 12 December 2019. Aim of the Bill The bill amends the Citizenship Act of 1955 to make people from Hindu, Sikh, Jain Buddhist, Christian, and Parsi faiths who entered India from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan eligible for citizenship if they had arrived in India before 31 December 2014. In case a person who belongs to the aforementioned faiths, from these three countries, does not have proof of birth of parents, they can apply for Indian citizenship after six years of residence in India instead of the usual 12 years required in the 1955 law. The amended bill applies to people who were forced or compelled to seek shelter in India due to persecution on the grounds of religion. The bill also aims to shield such people from proceedings of illegal migration. Understanding the Rationale of the Act The CAA does not take away any Indian’s citizenship. On the other hand, it provides refuge to persecuted minorities. This should be seen as a humane gesture. With a population of 1.3 billion, India itself has very minimal capacity to absorb persecuted groups. In any case, the biggest charge leveled against the act is that it violates the principle of Secularism as it leaves the Muslim population out of the list. It needs to be understood that the three countries mentioned are Muslim-dominated nation which has a history of religious persecution of minorities, especially of Hindu denomination. Moreover, the path to Indian citizenship is open to Muslims from any country through the provision of the Citizenship Act of 1955. The only difference the said act makes is that reduces the time of stay from 12 to 6 years to be eligible for citizenship in case of persecuted minorities from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. Conclusion Ultimately the act needs to be seen as positive discrimination much like the affirmative action policy of the US and the reservations for Scheduled Castes and Tribes (SC/ST) in India. People opposed to it should derive lessons from the benefits of positive discrimination against disadvantaged groups.

Earlier Theories Nebular Hypothesis (1755) Planetesimal Hypothesis (1904) Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis (1925) Double Star Hypothesis (1938) Weizsacker’s Hypothesis (1944) Meteorite Hypothesis (1944) Proto-planetary Hypothesis (1951) Fred Hoyle’s Magnetic Hypothesis (1958) Planetesimal Hypothesis Proposed by Chamberlin and Moulton in 1904 According to this hypothesis: The Sun existed before the formation of planets. Due to the disruptive forces of the sun and the powerful gravitational pull of the passing star, giant masses of gas were torn from the surface of the pre-existing sun. These giant masses of gas broke into various small chunks which on cooling gave rise to solid particles called Planetesimals. Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis It was proposed by Jeans and Jeffreys in 1925 It states that planets were formed from a gaseous filament that was torn out from the sun due to the gravitational pull of a huge star that happened to approach very close to the sun. This extremely unstable gaseous filament ejected into space and immediately got split into several fragments. These fragments gradually cooled, condensed, and gave rise to planets, and thus the solar system came into existence. Modern theory The Big Bang Theory It is a modern theory of the Origin and the Evolution of the Earth A. B. Lemaitre, a Belgian astronomer, was the first to provide a theory on the origin of the Universe in 1927. Later, Edwin Hubble in 1929, propounded the Big Bang theory with evidence of the expanding universe. It is also known as the “Expanding Universe Hypothesis”. According to this theory, all matter that formed the universe existed at one point (tiny ball) called a singularity or Singular atom having an unimaginable small volume, extremely high temperature, and density. Around 13.7 billion years ago, there was a big explosion (BIG BANG!). The ‘tiny ball’ exploded violently which led to a huge expansion and this expansion continues even today. There was a rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion slowed down. With the expansion some of the energy was converted into matter, and within the first three minutes from the big bang event, the first atom began to form. Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, the temperature dropped down to 4500 Kelvin and gave rise to atomic matter. The majority of atoms formed were hydrogen, along with helium and traces of lithium. Huge clouds of these elements fused through gravity to form stars and galaxies. Formation of stars and planets According to Big Bang Theory Initially, the distribution of matter and energy was uneven in the universe. This initial density difference gave rise to differences in gravitational forces and caused the matter to get drawn together. Thus, the galaxies start to develop. Galaxies started to form by the accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a large cloud called Nebula. Eventually, this growing nebula developed localized clumps of gas that grew continuously into an even denser gaseous body and gave rise to the formation of stars. The star formation is believed to have taken place 5-6 billion years before. The gravitational forces within the lumps of gases of the nebula lead to the formation of a core and huge rotating discs of gases. And dust developed around the core. In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the core develops into small-rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together. Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies. In the final stage, these large numbers of small planetesimals accrete to form large bodies in the form of planets.

Ecology was earlier divided into plant and animal ecology, but in modern times no such division exists since plants and animals are interconnected and interdependent among themselves and on their environment. Few important terms Species: It is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. A species shares a common gene pool. Population: Group of organisms of a species occupying a particular area at a particular time. Community: It includes all the population occupying a given area. Major subdivisions of ecology Autecology: The study of individual organisms or individual species in relation to their environment. There are two approaches to autecological studies. Autecology of species: where individual species are studied. Population Ecology: where individuals of given species are studied. Synecology: It is the study of a group of organisms associated together as a unit in relation to its environment. In synecology the unit of study is a group of organisms, it is also known as community ecology. Important branches of ecology Habitat ecology: It is based on the nature of the habitat. It includes freshwater ecology, forest ecology, grassland ecology, etc. Population ecology: Studies structure and dynamics of population. Ecosystem ecology: It deals with the analysis of ecosystems structurally and functionally. Conservation ecology: It deals with the preservation & management of natural resources. Production ecology:  It deals with energy flow and nutrient cycling within the ecosystem. Radio-ecology: It is concerned with the effects of radioactive material on both living systems as well as on pathways through which they are dispersed including the abiotic environment. Paleoecology: It is concerned with ancient organisms or organisms of the past and their environment. Genecology: It studies the genetic makeup of species or population in relation to the environment. Space ecology: Concern with the development of ecosystems for supporting life especially human life in outer space. Chemical ecology: It examines the role of chemical interactions between living organisms and their environment. Human ecology: Study of relationship between humans & their environment. Dr. Ram Deo Mishra (R.D Mishra) is known as the ‘Father of Indian Ecology’. He established a flourishing School of ecology at the Banaras Hindu University by the 1960s. Due to his efforts, the Government of India established the National Committee for Environmental Planning & Coordination (1972) which later evolved the establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1984. He was honoured with: Sanjay Gandhi Award in environment and ecology Fellowship of the Indian National Science Academy of Arts & Science. Laws of Ecology Everything Is Connected to Everything Else: It reflects the existence of the elaborate network of interconnections in the ecosphere: among different living organisms, and between populations, species, and individual organisms and their physicochemical surroundings. Everything Must Go Somewhere: The law emphasizes that in nature there is no such thing as “waste.” In every natural system, what is excreted by one organism as waste is taken up by another as food. Nature Knows Best: Nature knows the best, major man-made changes in the natural system are likely to be harmful to the system. There Is No Such Thing as a Free Lunch: Every gain is won at some cost. References: NCERT Biology IGNOU Material www.hightimestudy.com Shankar IAS Environment book Recitals Magazine