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Role of Science and Technology in the Developing World in the 21st Century Development in Science and Technology is impacting a lot of dimensions of our lives like communications, lifestyles, and transactions. Some of the benchmarks of technology in the 21st century are Biotechnology, Telecommunication, Microprocessors, and Nano-Technology. A few innovations include Cognitive Augmentation, Genetic Engineering, Proton Cancer Therapy etc. Along with years of advancement, come the risks and challenges. The issue of lack of skilled people, unavailability of resources, and lack of funds is also a constant hovering issue. Successful countries are capable of conducting research smoothly in all these areas due to the investment of public funds for the finance of research and development in crucial areas. Ministries and Departments for Science and Technology under Central Government Department of Science and Technology (DST): Established in May 1971, it's a nodal department to promote new areas of science and technology. Programs like Inspire, Scheme for Early Attraction of Talent, Scholarship for Higher Education (SHE), and Assured Opportunity for Research Careers (AORC) come under it. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR): Established in 1986, DSIR is a Ministry of Science and Technology division for the promotion, development, and utilization of indigenous technologies. Organizations like the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) come under this. It has 40 institutes and around 100 field stations dedicated to research and development in well-defined areas. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE): Established in 1954, works directly under the control of the Prime Minister through Presidential Order. DAE is concerned with Nuclear Power Technology development and its uses in medicine, agriculture, basic research, and industrial fields. Department of Space (DoS): Established in 1972, with the objective of: Promotion of space science and technology development, Achievement of becoming self-reliant and, Advanced space applications. Department of Biotechnology (DBT): Established in 1982, for the identification of priority sectors and development of long-term perspective for biotechnology in India. A separate DBT was established in 1986 with the motives of popularizing Biotechnology for large-scale use and promoting R&D and Human Resources in it. Department of Ocean Development (DOD): Established in 1981 it worked directly under the control of the Prime Minister, later in 1982 it became an independent department. In 2006, it became the Ministry of Ocean Development (MoOD). The primary function of this department is organizing, coordinating, and promoting ocean development activities in the nation. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR): Established in 2007 to strengthen health research capacity, organize data systems and research platforms, and enhance traditional medicines. It has missions like the India TB Research Consortium (ITRC) and End AIDS by 2030 under it. ICMR has been targeted for the elimination of diseases like Kala-Azar, Filariasis, Leprosy, and Malaria. Science and Technology Policies in India Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy: This was created in 2013 by the Prime Minister with the main goal of the Science, Research, and Innovation System for High Technology led path for India (SRISHTI). National AYUSH Mission: It was created in 2014 under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Its main objective is to give universal access to AYUSH healthcare across the nation. Stem Education: Strengthening Policies for Future Skilled Workforce. This was created because of concern about India’s Education System not being able to produce a skilled workforce and this works on challenges like poor infrastructure, lack of quality teachers, an overhaul of the science curriculum, and many more.

Ecology was earlier divided into plant and animal ecology, but in modern times no such division exists since plants and animals are interconnected and interdependent among themselves and on their environment. Few important terms Species: It is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. A species shares a common gene pool. Population: Group of organisms of a species occupying a particular area at a particular time. Community: It includes all the population occupying a given area. Major subdivisions of ecology Autecology: The study of individual organisms or individual species in relation to their environment. There are two approaches to autecological studies. Autecology of species: where individual species are studied. Population Ecology: where individuals of given species are studied. Synecology: It is the study of a group of organisms associated together as a unit in relation to its environment. In synecology the unit of study is a group of organisms, it is also known as community ecology. Important branches of ecology Habitat ecology: It is based on the nature of the habitat. It includes freshwater ecology, forest ecology, grassland ecology, etc. Population ecology: Studies structure and dynamics of population. Ecosystem ecology: It deals with the analysis of ecosystems structurally and functionally. Conservation ecology: It deals with the preservation & management of natural resources. Production ecology:  It deals with energy flow and nutrient cycling within the ecosystem. Radio-ecology: It is concerned with the effects of radioactive material on both living systems as well as on pathways through which they are dispersed including the abiotic environment. Paleoecology: It is concerned with ancient organisms or organisms of the past and their environment. Genecology: It studies the genetic makeup of species or population in relation to the environment. Space ecology: Concern with the development of ecosystems for supporting life especially human life in outer space. Chemical ecology: It examines the role of chemical interactions between living organisms and their environment. Human ecology: Study of relationship between humans & their environment. Dr. Ram Deo Mishra (R.D Mishra) is known as the ‘Father of Indian Ecology’. He established a flourishing School of ecology at the Banaras Hindu University by the 1960s. Due to his efforts, the Government of India established the National Committee for Environmental Planning & Coordination (1972) which later evolved the establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1984. He was honoured with: Sanjay Gandhi Award in environment and ecology Fellowship of the Indian National Science Academy of Arts & Science. Laws of Ecology Everything Is Connected to Everything Else: It reflects the existence of the elaborate network of interconnections in the ecosphere: among different living organisms, and between populations, species, and individual organisms and their physicochemical surroundings. Everything Must Go Somewhere: The law emphasizes that in nature there is no such thing as “waste.” In every natural system, what is excreted by one organism as waste is taken up by another as food. Nature Knows Best: Nature knows the best, major man-made changes in the natural system are likely to be harmful to the system. There Is No Such Thing as a Free Lunch: Every gain is won at some cost. References: NCERT Biology IGNOU Material www.hightimestudy.com Shankar IAS Environment book Recitals Magazine

The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble. In it are outlined the Constitution's goals, ideals, and guiding principles. These goals, which stem from the Preamble, have directly and indirectly influenced the salient features of the Constitution. The Indian Constitution is the lengthiest and most detailed of all written Constitutions of the world. Originally it consisted of 395 Articles divided into 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. It establishes a parliamentary form of Government both at the Centre and the States. The essence of this form of Government is its responsibility to the legislature. The President is the constitutional head of the State. The real executive power is vested in the Council of Ministers whose head is the Prime Minister. The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. The members of the Lok Sabha are elected directly by the people based on Adult Franchise. The old system of communal electorates was abolished and the uniform adult suffrage system was adopted wherein every person above 18 years of age was given the right to elect representatives for the legislatures. The Indian Constitution witnesses a unique blend of rigidity and flexibility. A rigid Constitution requires a special method of amendment for any of its provisions while in a flexible Constitution, any provisions can be amended by ordinary legislative process. The fact that the Indian Constitution has been amended 105 times since its adoption proves the characterization of it, as rigid and flexible, right. The incorporation of a formal declaration of Fundamental Rights in Part III of the Constitution is deemed to be a distinguishing feature of a democratic State. The State cannot make a law that takes away or abridges any of the rights of the citizens guaranteed in Part III. However, these rights are not absolute, they are subject to certain restrictions. The Directive Principles of the State Policy contained in Part IV of the Constitution set out aims and objectives to be taken up by the States in the governance of the country. Unlike the Fundamental Rights, these are not justiciable. The most remarkable feature of the Indian Constitution is that it is a federation with strong centralizing territory. This implies that during the proclamation of emergency, all powers are centralized in the Union Government, and the Constitution though being federal acquires a unitary character. ‘There is no right without a remedy’. For this very purpose, an independent and impartial judiciary with the power of judicial review has been established under the Indian Constitution. Apart from being the custodian of the rights of citizens it also determines the limits of power of the Centre and States. Though the Constitution of India is federal and provides for dual polity i.e. Centre and States, it provides for single citizenship for the whole of India. The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 introduced a Code of ten ‘Fundamental Duties’ for citizens which are just basic norms of democratic conduct and democratic behaviors. As per the demands of the country, our Constitution had taken the finest characteristics of most of the world's major Constitutions. Despite borrowing from practically every Constitution in the world, ours contains numerous distinguishing aspects that set it apart from others.

It was the first urban civilization extending from ‘Sutkagan Dor’ (Baluchistan) in the west to ‘Alamgirpur’ (Western Uttar Pradesh) in the east, and from ‘Manda’ (Jammu) to ‘Daimabad’ (Maharashtra) in the south. It is classified into 3 phases- Early Harappan (3200-2600 BCE), Mature Harappan (2600-1900 BCE), Late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE). Features of the Harappan Civilization The layout of cities: They followed the Grid system, with uniformity in housing patterns and Bricks. They segregated cities into two divisions, the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ which was divided by the boundary wall (watch tower). There were a few exceptions like Dholavira which had a three-fold division, and, Chanu Daro the only city without a citadel and Slope-based roads which helped in the Garbage Collection. Water Management: They constructed ponds, lakes, dams, and individual as well as community wells for the effective use of water resources. Mohenjo-Daro had maximum wells. The housing design enabled Rainwater Harvesting. They also made integrated drainage lines and used perforated pottery to filter. An opening was also provided for irrigation, e.g. canal irrigation in Shortughai. Economy and Trade: They had flourishing trade relations with Mesopotamians and Persians. They exported included garments, wool, perfumes, etc., and imported copper, ivory, shell, pearls, etc. They followed the barter system due to the absence of metallic money. They followed a binary system for weights made up of chert, steatite, and limestone. Society And Culture: It was a matriarchal society with no caste system. They wore garments of cotton, silk, and wool, used beads to make jewelry, and also used lipstick and eyeliner. Their fashion style can be inferred from the stone sculptures. Pottery and script: The Harappans were experts in making a variety of multi-purpose pottery used for storing grains, and filtration of water (perforated pottery). They used the now-lost wax technique. They primarily made red and black pottery with various figures inscribed on it. Their writing was boustrophedon and the script is yet to be deciphered. Religion and Rituals: There was no official religion. They were nature worshippers and worshipped the Peepal tree. They also worshipped proto-Shiva and the mother goddess. The presence of rituals can be traced in Kalibangan and Lothal where fire altars have been found. The great bath at Mohenjo-Daro is also an example of a ritual they practiced. Possible causes for decline: No archaeological evidence can accurately explain the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization. Aryan invasion: According to Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s theory Aryans led by Lord Indra destroyed the cities. Later, this theory was criticized because there was no massacre, cut marks, and no large skeletal remains except Mohenjo-Daro and eventually he had to accept that this theory was not correct. Environmental changes: Drying and Shifting course of Saraswati River, low rainfall, flooding of rivers e.g. Mohenjo-Daro was flooded 7 times. Geological changes such as earthquakes, rise in temperature, and soil erosion. Epidemic: Poor hygiene and sanitation. Economic Reasons: Decline of trade and commerce. References A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Ancient and Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya Higher Secondary First year, Tamil Nadu Board Prateek Nayak Notes

In the previous article, we mainly discussed the historical perspective of Indo-Nepal relations and Nepal’s journey to date. We shall now discuss the various cooperation and challenges in bilateral relations. Development Projects: India has long helped Nepal in its infrastructural development. As per the Indian Embassy in Nepal, the Government of India has supported various Lines of Credit (LOC) extended by the EXIM Bank of India to the Government of Nepal. Currently, India has provided four lines of credit to the Government of Nepal for USD 100 million, USD 250 million, USD 550 million, and USD 750 million. These lines of credit were signed in June 2006, September 2007, and September 2016. These lines have financed 44 road projects, 7 projects in hydropower and transmission lines, and several others in housing and reconstruction spread all across Nepal. A large number of these projects are either completed or are nearing completion, including some iconic and major projects such as the Solu Corridor Transmission Line, Koshi Corridor Transmission Line, Muzaffarpur-Dhalkebar Transmission Line, Rahughat Hydroelectric Project, Devighat Hydroelectric Project, etc. Both sides are undertaking regular discussions to identify projects under the LOC that remain unutilized. Hydro Power diplomacy: Nepal being an upper riparian state, has a lot of hydropower potential. As per the Asian Development Bank report of June 2020, Nepal has a hydropower potential of ~83 GW out of which ~42 GW is commercially viable. Nepal has developed less than 1.2 GW of hydropower, which is a tiny fraction of the total economic potential. Cooperation in the hydropower sector has been an important agenda between the two nations. India is currently developing the 900-MW Arun III project in Nepal Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam (SJVN). Further, the SJVN and Nepal Electricity Authority signed an MoU to develop the 679 MW Arun-4 hydropower project in May 2022. SJVN has also been awarded the 450 MW Seti River 6 Project. Another Indian corporation, the GMR group, has been given a license to construct the 900-MW Upper Karnali project. The NHPC Limited of India was awarded another prestigious 750 MW West Seti Project in August 2022, which earlier was awarded to China’s Three Gorges Corporation. In November 2021, India also began to purchase Nepal’s hydropower electricity and Nepal can export over 450 MW of electricity to India. In fact, in 2022, Nepal’s hydropower electricity exports to India generated a revenue of ~12 billion for it. Both countries have also agreed to act swiftly on the detailed report of the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project. Additionally, India has also agreed to facilitate Nepal’s hydropower exports to Bangladesh. Other Infrastructure projects Construction of the Jaynagar (India) to Bardibas (Nepal) rail link, being constructed under the assistance of the Government of India, is already ongoing with two phases (i.e. Jaynagar to Bijalpura) already becoming operational. The 136-kilometre-long Raxaul-Kathmandu railway with India’s financial assistance worth USD 3.15 billion is also planned and its DPR has been recently submitted by the Indian consultant Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL). Work on some cross-border electricity transmission lines, including the Dhalkebar-Muzaffarpur transmission line, is also underway. In 2020, South Asia’s first cross-border oil pipeline was inaugurated to supply petroleum products to Nepal. To increase people-to-people contacts, both nations have also signed three sister-city agreements for Kathmandu-Varanasi, Lumbini-Bodhgaya, and Janakpur-Ayodhya. So we can say both countries are working well in terms of economic and people-to-people relations. Challenges Having said that, one must note that India-Nepal relations are not free from issues. Nepal continues to urge India to amend the 1950 friendship treaty which many in Nepal perceive as unequal. Apart from that, some unsettled border issues are pending. As mentioned earlier, both countries share a border of ~1850 km. Most of it is already settled except for two main areas i.e. Lipulekh / Kalapani area (in Uttarakhand) and the Susta area (bordering Bihar). Further in 2015, there were blockades by some sections of Nepali groups in the Terai region, especially Madhesis, who opposed the constitution. They undertook a long blockade at the Birgunj border leading to a severe shortage of essential items including LPG in the Pahadi regions. This did not go well with Nepal and it blames India for it. Another main concern in Indo-Nepal relations is the rising Chinese influence in Nepal. It is said that the Maoist insurgency in Nepal was supported by China to exert its influence in Nepal and contain India. Further, China has made its inroads in the Infrastructure, education, and health sectors. China is undertaking various projects including airport development, transmission lines, and road connectivity. Pokhara International Airport is one such example. As per recent reports, the Chinese government is providing scholarships and sponsoring study tours for Nepali students, civil servants, and journalists. Mandarin has been introduced as a compulsory subject in many schools across Nepal. A huge number of hotels, restaurants, and other businesses are now owned by Chinese nationals. However, Nepal claims its relations with China are purely economical and do not hurt Indian interests in any way. It is asking India to open new air routes and reverse anti-dumping measures. India has restricted its markets to Chinese-assisted Nepali infrastructure projects, hydropower plants, and airports. Conclusion: Overall despite some challenges, both nations share cordial relations and are natural partners. India being a bigger nation and economy tries to accommodate Nepal to the extent possible and has been extending a helping hand in Nepal’s development. We must also understand that we cannot alienate China from Nepal in today’s world but can work to keep its influence minimal. A strong and friendly neighbor like Nepal is always in India’s favor and India must try to garner the support of Nepal for all strategic matters. Accordingly, Nepal too must understand India’s security concerns. With increased connectivity, deepening economic engagements, and people-to-people connectivity, we can hope to further strengthen the bilateral ties.

Economic activities can be classified in various forms. One such form is the ‘Three-sector’ model. The ‘Three-sector’ model divides the economy into three parts: primary sector, secondary sector, and tertiary sector. The Primary Sector It comprises economic activities like farming, fishing, forestry, and mining. This sector provides the basic components for various goods and services. People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work. In developing and underdeveloped nations the primary sector often accounts for a larger share of the national income as compared to developed nations. Also due to technological advancement in developed nations; less workforce is employed in the primary sector. While the developing and underdeveloped nations have a higher proportion of workforce in the primary sector. The Secondary Sector It is mainly concerned with manufacturing work. It involves the process of converting raw materials into usable products. Since this sector is associated with different kinds of industries, it is also called the industrial sector. Automobile, textiles, chemicals, electrical, energy, metallurgical, construction (infrastructure), and food processing are a few examples of industries of the secondary sector. People engaged in secondary activities are called blue-collar workers. The primary sector provides the raw materials needed by the secondary sector. Nations that are mainly dependent on the primary sector, typically grow slowly and remain underdeveloped or developing economies. The value added by converting raw materials into finished goods consistently generates higher profitability, which helps in faster economic growth. The Tertiary Sector It can be mainly considered as a service sector. Services are nothing but intangible goods. Tertiary sector helps in the development of secondary and primary sectors. People engaged in tertiary activities are called white-collar workers. This sector is well organized and uses modern-day techniques to perform its functions. A few examples of the tertiary sector are financial services (banking, insurance, investment), health care, hospitality, education, information technology, transportation, and professionals like lawyers, accountants, architects, and so on. Within the domain of the tertiary sector, the higher-level services are further subdivided into quaternary and quinary activities. Quaternary activities They are specialized tertiary activities that fall under the umbrella of the "Knowledge Sector" and require a separate classification within the tertiary sector. In recent years, both the supply and demand for information-based services, such as those offered by tax experts, software developers, and investment consultants have increased significantly. Many forms of quaternary services are outsourced to other countries. Quinary activities They are another subdivision of the tertiary sector. Quinary activities comprise services that involve R&D, innovation, policy-making, data interpretation, and technological advancement. The people involved in this sub-sector are limited in number but their contributions have immense impact. The personnel in the Quinary sector are often called ‘gold collar’ professionals. As discussed above, in a developing nation primary sector plays a major role– with most people employed in agriculture and allied activities. As the nation develops, with improved technology less workforce is needed in the primary sector. This allows people to shift to the secondary sector and produce manufactured goods. With further technological development and rising level of education, people move towards the tertiary sector making the service industry the backbone of the economy.

It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition. The interior becomes hotter with depth, which is convincingly indicated by the volcanic eruption. Through mining and drilling operations we have been able to observe the earth’s interior directly only up to a depth of a few kilometers. Apart from seismological studies, other important data sources such as meteorite analysis, etc., though indirect, logically prove that the earth’s interior comprises different layers. These layers are distinguished by their physical and chemical properties, particularly in the thickness, depth, density, temperature, metallic content, etc. The study of the propagation of earthquake waves through the earth’s interior has provided significant information about the layers of the earth. There are three types of earthquake waves: Longitudinal, Primary, or P-waves: They are similar to sound waves in which the particle moves to and fro in the direction in which the wave is traveling. These waves travel in solid, liquid, and gaseous media. They have short wavelengths and high frequency. Transverse, Secondary, S-waves, or Sheer waves: These waves are like waves that run along a string that is fastened at one end, stretched fairly tight, and shaken at the other end. In such waves, the particle moves to and fro at a right angle to the path of the wave. These waves travel only in solid medium. In comparison to the primary waves, they are slow in motion. They also have short wavelengths and high frequencies. Surface, L-waves, Rayleigh, or R-waves: These are transverse waves and are confined to the outer skin of the crust. They are responsible for most of the destructive forces of earthquakes. They have low frequency, long wavelength, and low velocity. The velocities of P and S waves change with depth and each can be related to the change in materials. Each range of changing velocity demarcates a zone of discontinuity. Based on seismic investigation, the earth’s interior has been broadly divided into three major parts- the Crust, Mantle, and Core. It can also be inferred that- The crust, mantle, and core are separated by two sharp breaks, usually known as major discontinuities. The crust is composed of heterogeneous material and has an average thickness of about 33 km. The second major segment of the earth, i.e., the mantle extends from below the crust to a depth of 2900 km. The third major segment of the earth i.e., the core extends from below the mantle up to the center of the earth.

The classical definition of energy is a system's ability to perform labor, however, because energy takes various forms, it is difficult to identify a single comprehensive definition. It is an object's property that allows it to be transported from one object to another or converted into new forms but not generated or destroyed. Energy Sector in India The energy sector in India includes the production and distribution of petroleum products, natural gas, and coal. India relies significantly on imports to meet its energy requirements, with crude oil accounting for more than 80% of total energy imports. Recent years have seen efforts to improve natural gas infrastructure. India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies and has an increasing demand for electricity and energy. With a population of over 1.3 billion and a rapidly rising economy, India's power and energy sectors are critical to the nation's growth and development. India's power sector includes electricity generation, transmission, and distribution, with a broad mix of energy sources. Coal, natural gas, hydroelectric, nuclear, wind, and solar energy are among the available options. India is the world's fifth largest electricity generator, with Maharashtra leading all Indian states in energy generation. Electricity remains a major engine of India's economic growth, with an elasticity ratio of 0.8 emphasizing its importance. Renewable energy has gained traction, accounting for 25% of total installed capacity. India's power generation capacity has increased dramatically, currently standing at roughly 5 GW, with a goal to reach 450 GW by 2030. The government is also supporting using energy-efficient technologies such as LED lighting and smart meters to reduce energy use and waste. Initiatives like the National Solar Mission, Wind Energy Mission, Smart Cities Mission, and UJALA scheme seek to encourage renewable energy and energy-efficient technologies. Challenges faced by the energy sector in India Energy Access: Despite recent improvements, India continues to face hurdles in guaranteeing universal access to energy. According to the International Energy Agency, around 240 million people in India still lack access to electricity. The lack of access to electricity has an impact on the country's socioeconomic development. Energy Security: India relies largely on imports for its energy requirements. According to the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, India's crude oil import dependency has risen from 77.3% in 2014-15 to 85.8% in 2019/20. This reliance on imports exposes the country to global price volatility and geopolitical concerns. Environmental Sustainability: The energy industry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. According to the Global Carbon Project, India was the world's third-largest CO2 emitter in 2019, accounting for 6.6% of total emissions. The challenge for the energy sector is to encourage economic growth while maintaining environmental sustainability. Infrastructure: India's energy sector has insufficient transmission and distribution infrastructure, ineffective storage systems, and insufficient refining capacity. According to the Ministry of Power, India's peak demand gap was 0.5% in 2019-20, highlighting the need for more infrastructure development. Financing: The energy sector requires large expenditures to address rising energy consumption and promote sustainable development. However, finance remains a concern due to the high capital costs involved with energy projects and the scarcity of funds. Ministries Ministry of Power It came into being in July 1992. Its function is to monitor the quality and quantity of the production. On top of provision delivery, provide appropriate electricity production to sustain infrastructure growth. Sections of the Power Ministry contain: Power Ministry Coal Ministry Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Coal Ministry It also has a sub-body called the Coal Controller’s Organization (CCO) that has the following functions and responsibilities: Inspection of collieries to ensure quality. Decision-making in case of any issue between the consumer and owner concerning the grade and size of coal. Regulation of disposal of coal stock. Providing grants for opening or re-opening of any coal mine. Submitting monthly data related to coal to various ministries. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy It was established in October 2006. Earlier there was a commission for additional sources of Energy which was established in March 1981 to look after the issues such as cost hikes of oil, and problems regarding its supply. Later, the Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES) came into being in 1992 and finally became the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). Indian Renewable Energy Development (IREDA) was established in 1987 and was a public-sector nonbanking company under MNRE that started providing loans for new and renewable sources of energy. Two main objectives of IREDA are financial support and betterment in efficiency.

In India's east is situated Bangalesh, our neighbor that shares a land border of 4096 km with us, touching its boundaries with the Indian states of Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and West Bengal. Bangladesh was part of India and only got separated from it in 1947. Hence both modern-day countries share common social, cultural, and historical relations, and also share riverine and maritime boundaries. The modern-day Inda-Bangladesh relation started in 1971 when India helped Bangladesh (known as ‘East Pakistan’ priorly) to get freedom from Pakistan. India was the first country in the world to recognize it as an independent and sovereign nation. It’s an entry point for India’s northeastern states and provides land connectivity to Southeast Asian nations. This makes Bangladesh important for India's foreign policy. No wonder, since Bangladesh’s independence, the two countries have continued to consolidate their political, economic, trade, and cultural relations. 2021 marks the 50th year of Bangladesh’s independence and diplomatic relations of 2 countries. In March 2021, India conferred the Gandhi Peace Prize 2020 to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Father of the Nation of Bangladesh. India and Bangladesh today enjoy one of the best periods of their relationship under present governments, with positive development in the areas of diplomatic, political, economic, and security relations. Trade and Economic relations: Bangladesh is India’s biggest trade partner in South Asia. Bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has grown steadily over the last decade. India’s exports to Bangladesh in FY 2018-19 stood at USD 9.21 bn and imports from Bangladesh during the same period were USD 1.04 bn. The same has risen to USD 12 billion and 2 billion respectively in FY23. India mainly exports Raw cotton, non-retail pure cotton yarn, and electricity to Bangladesh, whereas it imports pure vegetable oils, non-knit men’s suits, and textile waste. India is Bangladesh’s second largest market for imports after China. Both countries are currently negotiating the signing of the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA), enabling trade, investment, industrialization, and overall economic cooperation. Both countries have also agreed to settle trade transactions in Rupee to reduce dependence on US dollars. Standing true to its neighborhood-first commitment, India is going to sign a Tripartite agreement with Bangladesh and Nepal. This would enable Bangladesh to import electricity from Nepal. However, amid growing trade links, the Indian investments in Bangladesh are still quite low. In the fiscal year of 2021-22, foreign direct investment to Bangladesh totaled USD 1.37 billion, with India accounting for only USD 15.7 million, or 1.15%. To promote cooperation on bilateral trade, both countries have created the India-Bangladesh CEO’s Forum to provide policy-level inputs in various areas of trade and investment and also to facilitate exchanges among the business communities of both countries.

Aryan Invasion Theory Harappan civilization was followed by another great civilization known as Vedic civilization (1500-600 BCE). It was established by Indo-Aryans who are supposed to be the composers of Vedic texts. Their origin has been a subject of great dispute and has given birth to various theories. European theories Filippo Sassetti (Italian): He lived in Goa for 5 years (1583-1588 C.E), studied Latin and Sanskrit, and was the first to notice the similarities between the two languages. For example, the Sanskrit word matri is similar to mater and pitri to pater. William Jones: By 1786, he had also found striking similarities between the two languages. GP Giles studied all the trees mentioned in the Rig Ved and found all species near Taiga, Siberia Region. Karl Penka is of the view that Aryans were a linguistic group and belonged to Scandinavia (Northern Europe). Other theorists: Shroeder (France), P. Nehring (S. Russia), Morgan (western Siberia) To support their theory they gave the reference to the Boghazkoi Inscription, in which the treaty between Hittite and Mitanni Kings is mentioned in the presence of the Vedic gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas. However, the critics of this theory argue that the Boghazkoi inscription belongs to 1400 BCE but Rig Veda must have existed before that date. Central Asian Theory Max Muller- He compared Zend Avesta (Iranian text) and the Vedas and found similarities between various words and concepts. He believes that the alphabet such as ‘h’ and ‘s’ had been interchangeably used such as ‘hapta Hindu’ (sapta sindhu), ahura (asura), daha (dasa), and claim the homeland of Aryans as Central Asia. E- Meyer and Herzfeld also supported the central Asian theory. Criticism: Christian bias (Biblical origin of the earth)-4004 BCE Arctic Region Theory Bal Gangadhar Tilak is of the view that the northern Arctic region is the homeland of Aryans, as the Vedas speak about 6 months of long days and nights, which happen only in the Arctic region. Wrote ‘Artic Home in the Vedas’ (1903). This view is subsequently discarded. Tibet Theory Swami Dayanand Saraswati: According to him Tibet is the original home of Aryans. Indian Theory Sampurnanand And A.C Das- Aryans belong to the Sapta Sindhu Region and it is written nowhere in the Rig Veda that they were outsiders. Reverse migration (from India to the West) might be a possibility. Ganganath Jha- situated at the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamuna L.D. Kala- Considered the homeland of Aryans to be Kashmir R. B Pandey- Considered the homeland of Aryans to be Madhya Pradesh David Frawley- wrote that Aryans belonged to south India and then settled in Northwest India because Samudra (word mentioned multiple times in rig Ved) water upwelled due to the changing condition of climate after the ice age. The supporters of this Indian theory put their opinion and claimed that Aryans were indigenous because the geographical data and river hymns mentioned in the Rig Veda fit in with Punjab and neighboring regions. Few historians accept the Max Muller theory whereas others believe in the Indian theory and few historians also believe in the immigration of Indo-Aryan from Andronovo culture instead of invasion. The oldest surviving record of the Aryans is the Rig Veda and there is no mention of migration. No Archaeological and Biological evidence could establish the arrival of any new people from outside. Prof. Edmund Leach (Cambridge University) wrote that Aryan invasion is just a tool to justify colonization and Western supremacy. Shri Aurobindo- So great is the force of attractive generalization and widely popularized errors that all the world goes on perpetuating the blunder talking of the Indo-Aryan races, claiming or disclaiming Aryan kinship and building on that basis of falsehood the most far-reaching political, social or pseudo-scientific conclusions. References A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Ancient and Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya Higher Secondary First year, Tamil Nadu Board Prateek Nayak Notes

Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru rightly observed, “While we want this Constitution to be as solid and permanent as we can make it, there is no permanence in the Consitution. There should be certain flexibility.” The machinery of the amendment is like a safety valve for the nation. The procedure of amendment is mentioned in Article 368, Chapter XX of the Indian Constitution. Regarding its extent, it was the Keshvananda Bharti case that held that the Doctrine of Basic Structure of the Indian Constitution could not be abrogated even by a Constitutional amendment. The 1st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951 added the Ninth Schedule to protect the land reforms and other laws included in it from the judicial review. It added Article 15(4) that empowered the State to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes. Most importantly, it also added three more grounds for restrictions in Article 19 (1). The 7th Amendment Act, 1956 abolished the existing classification of States into four categories i.e., Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states, and reorganized them into 14 States and 6 Union Territories. The 9th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1960 facilitated the cession of the Indian territory of the Berubari Union (located in West Bengal) to Pakistan as provided in the Indo-Pakistan Agreement (1958). The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 is the most comprehensive amendment and hence is called the ‘Mini-Constitution’. Here the Preamble was amended for the first and last time where words ‘Socialist’,’ Secular’, and ‘Integrity’ were added. The Fundamental Duties were added upon the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee that was constituted by the government in 1976. This amendment provided for Administrative Tribunals for speedy justice. It transferred five subjects from the State list to the Concurrent list: education, forest, protection of wild animals and birds, weights and measures, and administration of Justice. It enabled the President to make a Proclamation of Emergency either in respect of any part of the country or the whole of India. It also added three new Directive Principles - Equal justice and free legal aid, the participation of workers in the management of industries, and protection of the environment, forests, and wildlife. The 44nd Amendment Act, 1978 was also a very important one in the Constitutional history of our country. It replaced the term ‘Internal disturbance’ with ‘Armed rebellion’ in respect of National Emergency. It bound the President to declare a National Emergency only on the written recommendation of the Cabinet. The Right to Property was changed from a fundamental right to a legal right. It provided that during a National Emergency, fundamental rights under Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended. The 52nd Amendment Act, 1985 was enacted to curb the evil of defections from the body politic of our country. The disqualifications specified under the amendment were included in the Tenth Schedule. The 61st Amendment Act, 1989 reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years. A National Commission for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes was established under the 65th Amendment Act, 1990. The 69th Amendment Act, 1991 accorded a special status to the Union Territory of Delhi by designing it as the National Capital Territory of Delhi. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts (1992) granted Constitutional status and protection to Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies respectively. Till now, a total of 106 Constitutional Amendment Acts have been enacted which give a great insight as to the fact that the Indian Federation does not suffer from the faults of rigidity of legalism. Its distinguishing feature is that of a flexible federation. The Constitution makers kept a balance between the danger of having a non-amendable Constitution and one that is too easily amendable.

The Crust The crust is the uppermost shell of the earth. It is 5-10 km thick over the oceanic area, 35 km in the continental area, and thickness ranges from 55 to 70 km in orogenic belts. The Mohorovicic discontinuity marks its lower boundary of the crust. From the study of shallow-focus earthquakes and artificial seismic explosions, it has been inferred that there are two zones of crustal rocks beneath the continents. However, only one occurs beneath the oceans. In the continental regions, underneath a zone of superficial sediments, the crust can be divided into two layers, the upper layer called ‘Sial’ and the lower layer ‘Sima’. The boundary between the Sial and the Sima is called Conrad Discontinuity. Sial is also known as the upper continental crust, and contains igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks that are exposed on the land surface. This layer is rich in silica and aluminum. The rocks in this layer are of granitic to granodioritic composition. The Conrad Discontinuity, located at a depth of 11kms separates the Sial from Sima. Sima is also known as the lower continental crust and is about 22 km thick. It extends from Conrad discontinuity up to the Mohorovicic discontinuity. This layer is rich in silica and magnesium and is basaltic in composition. Sima includes two parts- Outer Sima: It extends up to a depth of 19 km and consists of rocks of intermediate composition. Inner Sima: It is located at a depth of about 19 km and extends up to 33 km. It is basic to ultrabasic in composition. It has been observed that the L-waves while passing through ocean floors acquire more velocity than their propagation through the land masses. This indicates that the sialic layer (granitic material) with which the landmasses are usually composed is practically absent on the ocean floors. The ocean floor is of basaltic composition, which is poorer in potassium and richer in aluminum than the basalt of the land surface and is called ‘oceanic tholeiites’. A change from continental to oceanic crust occurs at the peripheries of the major continents where there are marginal seas and island arcs.