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Earth Observation Satellites Many satellites are sent by ISRO into space over some time for various observation purposes like climate, natural disasters, and other environmental episodes for applications like agriculture, water resources, urban planning, rural development, ocean resources, mineral planning, etc Some of the recently launched Earth Observation Satellites are: EOS-03, EOS-04, INS-2DT, and, INPIRESat-1.  Indian Remote Sensing Satellite After the successful launch of the Bhaskara-I and Bhaskara-II satellites, India started its own Remote Sensing a.k.a. IRS. Afterwards, the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) was established for data distribution. Some of the applications of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites are: In Space-Based Inputs for Decentralised Planning (SIS-DP) In National Urban Information System (NUIS) In the ISRO-based Disaster Management Support Programme (ISRO-DMSP) In Hydro-geomorphological maps for locating underground water resources. In the characterizations of biodiversity In coastal studies National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad is the hub for the acquisition and processing of Data and then circulation among all the other hubs in India. The IRS satellites involved are Resourcesat-1, IRS-ID, Oceansat-1, Cartosat-1, Cartosat-2, and some foreign satellites such as Terra, ERS, and NOAA.  INSAT/GSAT Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is an all-purpose geostationary series of satellites that is known to be the largest domestic communication system in Asia. Broadcasting, Meteorology, Telecommunication, rescue, and search operations are some of the objectives of INSAT. It is a combined initiative of the India Meteorological Department, All India Radio, Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, and Doordarshan. INSAT-I was launched in 1982, followed by INSAT-II in 1983 and INSAT-III in 1988.  The GSAT satellites, which are utilized for digital audio, data, and video transmission for both military and civilian customers, are India's own communications satellites. Earlier the satellites were called INSAT and later all came under the umbrella of GSAT. On June 29, 2017, Ariane-5 VA-238 launched GSAT-17 from Kourou, French Guiana, into the INSAT/GSAT system. GSAT-17, which weighs 3477 kg upon launch, is equipped with payloads in the S-band, Normal C-band, and Extended C-band to offer a range of communication services. Additionally, GSAT-17 is equipped to relay meteorological data and perform satellite-based search and rescue operations, which were formerly handled by INSAT satellites.  Some of the important GSAT satellites are: GSAT-9/SAARC Satellite, GSAT-31, GSAT-30, CMS-01. Launch Vehicle Technology First Generation (SLVs, or satellite launch vehicles):  India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle was called the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV). The goal of its development in the early 1980s was to launch satellites into low-Earth orbit. The SLV signaled India's foray into the space launch sector and set the stage for later developments in launch vehicle technology. Second Generation (Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle):  India created the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) in the late 1980s as a follow-up to the SLV. The SLV was enhanced by the ASLV, which had more boosters to increase cargo capacity. Even though ASLV had some difficulties, it was a step towards more advanced launch vehicles. Third Generation (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle):  With the ability to launch satellites into both geosynchronous and polar orbits, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) has become India's workhorse launch vehicle. Since making its debut in the early 1990s, it has developed into one of the world's most dependable and adaptable launch vehicles. The cost-effectiveness, modular configuration, and sturdy construction of PSLV are key factors in its success. Recent PSLV mission list: - PSLV-C51: Several smaller payloads including Brazil's first Earth observation satellite, Amazonia-1, were launched. - PSLV-C49: Nine international small satellites including the radar imaging satellite EOS-01 (previously RISAT-2BR2) were deployed. - PSLV-C48: Transported nine commercial payloads together with the radar imaging satellite RISAT-2BR1. Fourth Generation (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle):  With the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), India is moving towards higher orbits and larger payload capacities. In order to meet the demand for placing communication satellites into geostationary orbits, GSLV was created at the beginning of the new millennium. For improved performance, it integrates local cryogenic higher stages.

Ecological Succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. It is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. Within any community, some species may become less abundant over time or even vanish from the ecosystem altogether. The change observed over time in ‘what is living’ in a particular ecosystem is Ecological Succession. Ecological Succession may also occur when the conditions of an environment suddenly and drastically change. Forest fires, wind storms, and human activities like agriculture all greatly alter the conditions of an environment. These massive forces may also destroy species and thus alter the dynamics of the ecological community triggering a scramble for dominance among the species still present. The rise and fall of numerous species within various communities illustrate two types of motive forces of succession: the impact of an established species to change a site’s environmental conditions, and the impact of large external forces to alter the nature of a site suddenly. The “engine” of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species on their own environments. The original environment may have been optimal for the first species of plant or animal, but the newly altered environment is often optimal for some other species of plant or animal. Under the changed conditions of the environment, the previously dominant species may fail and another species may rise.  Stages of Ecological Succession  Ecological Succession proceeds through various stages, from the Pioneer Community to the Climax Stage. Each such stage is called sere or seral community. A seral community is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. In many cases, more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. A pri-sere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. A seral community is the name given to each group of plants within the succession.  Ecological succession breaks down into three fundamental phases:  (1) Primary Succession, (2) Secondary Succession, and (3) Climax Community.  Primary Succession:  It occurs when organisms colonize an area devoid of life, usually after a catastrophic natural event that leaves the land barren. Often the first organisms to take hold are algae, fungi, and simple plants such as lichens and mosses. Over time a thin layer of soil builds up so that more advanced plants, such as grasses and ferns, can take root. Along with the successful colonization of plants come animals, insects, birds, and small invertebrates. An example of primary succession is the pioneer communities that begin to inhabit a newly created lava bed, where life cannot exist until the rock surface cools to a moderate temperature. Pioneer Community:  It is a group of organisms that invade a new area in the process of Ecological Succession. These organisms are typically plants, animals, and fungi. They are the first to move into a new habitat and often make the habitat more hospitable for future inhabitants. The pioneers through their death and decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live. Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing soil in which seeds can become lodged and grow. As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse, and competition increases, but at the same time new niche opportunities develop. The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and the invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the preceding community. Climax community:  The culminating stage in the succession is the establishment of a stable community in the area, which is known as the climax community. That is, the final stage of ecological succession is the formation of the climax community. Climax communities are relatively stable and can vary widely in a given region. Some of the features of the climax community are: the vegetation of this region is tolerant to the environmental conditions. The species diversity is large and the food chains of these species are complex and with spatial structure. It is a balanced ecosystem. There is also an equilibrium between the nutrients taken in from the soil and the return of the nutrients to the soil by litter fall. The individual organisms in the climax ecosystem are replaced by other organisms of the same kind. Thus it maintains species equilibrium. Secondary Succession:  It is when an established community is replaced by a different set of plants and animals. Most ecological changes occur as secondary succession. Most biological communities are in a continual state of secondary succession. Secondary succession is gradual, always moving toward the climax community. It occurs when an area previously had an ecological community and the community is disturbed or changed such that the original community was destroyed and a new community moves in.  Such successions are comparatively more rapid. This is more common than primary succession and is often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human interfaces such as logging and clear-cutting. It starts from previously built-up substrate with already existing living matter. This type of succession starts in a given area where the conditions for life are favorable because the area was occupied earlier by a well-developed community. E.g.- Succession in an abandoned crop field.  Other prominent types of Ecological Succession: Autotrophic Succession : It is characterized by the early and continued dominance of autotrophic organisms like green plants. It begins in a predominantly inorganic environment, indefinitely maintaining the energy flow.  Allogenic Succession:  Allergenic Succession, the replacement of the existing community is caused largely by any other external condition and not by the existing organisms.  Autogenic Succession:  Autogenic Succession refers to that type when the community itself, as a result of its reactions to the environment, modifies its environment thus causing its replacement by new communities References NCERT Biology IGNOU Material www.neostencil.com Shankar IAS Environment book Recitals Magazine Allen notes Biology

Apart from bilateral relations, both countries are also members of regional BIMSTEC, SAARC, and the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, which have facilitated closer ties and increased influence among Southeast Asian nations. In terms of economic relations, both countries signed the India-Myanmar trade agreement in 1970. The bilateral trade has grown steadily since then, though still way less than its potential. India is Myanmar’s sixth largest trading partner, and merchandise trade between them in 2022-23 was USD 1.76 billion. India's major import items from Myanmar are dominated by agricultural items (beans, pulses, and forest-based products like teak) and form 90% of our imports. India’s main exports to Myanmar consist of primary and semi-finished steel and pharmaceuticals.  Myanmar is also the beneficiary of a duty-free tariff preference scheme for least-developed countries (LDCs). India has also given a Line of Credit of USD 500 million to Myanmar for undertaking various projects. As per India’s MEA, in terms of investment, India stands at 11th position with an approved investment of USD 773.038 million by 34 Indian enterprises as of 31 January 2022. 13 Indian Public Sector Undertakings have a presence in Myanmar in different sectors, with a concentration in oil and gas. Further, there have been total investments of USD 1.74 billion between April 2000 and March 2023. Some Indian companies such as Essar, GAIL, and ONGC Videsh Ltd. have invested in Myanmar’s energy sector. Both countries are also working for closer connectivity. Major projects being undertaken are the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project and India Myanmar Thailand Trilateral Highway. Let’s discuss both these projects one by one. Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project : It is a bilateral project that aims to provide an alternative route from Kolkata to India’s North Eastern state of Aizawl in Mizoram via Sittwe Port and Kaladana River of Myanmar. The project will help not only India but Myanmar as well due to increased economic activity. The interoperability between Kolkatta and Sittwe Port has already begun in 2023. However, the work inside Myanmar is yet to be done which has also been delayed due to political instability and civil war situation in Myanmar. Recently in January 2024, The Arakan Army, a rebel group in Myanmar, captured Paletwa (an important site in the Kaladan Project), putting the Kaladan project’s future in the doldrums. India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway: It is a 1,360 km long, 4-lane highway connecting Moreh in Manipur, India with Mae Sot in Thailand, via Myanmar. This highway will facilitate trade and commerce, health, education, and tourism between the three nations apart from cost-effective transportation. The highway is also of strategic importance for India as it provides land routes to Southeast Asian countries. The project has suffered various delays in the past with the initial timeline to make the highway operational by 2015. However, the same was extended the timeline till 2019 and the new deadline is set for 2027. India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway Route: Both countries also have deepening security and strategic interests. Myanmar has never been a big threat to India’s security unlike China, Pakistan, or Bangladesh. In recent decades, the Myanmar Government has helped India in flushing out the terrorist organizations operating in India’s North Eastern States. Myanmar helped India by undertaking strikes against ULFA and other militants in 2007. India conducted surgical strikes in 2015 against the NSCN–K group in Myanmar. Also, India along with Myanmar conducted another operation i.e. Sunrise 1 and Sunrise 2 against militants in 2019.  It should be noted that China, like our other neighbors has strong footprints in Myanmar including defense relations. In fact, China was the main country with which Myanmar had relations under military rule. It is said that China has signal intelligence facilities, maritime bases, and radar facilities at the Coco Islands in Myanmar which they use to monitor the activities of Indian forces, especially the Indian Navy based in nearby Andamans & Nicobar Islands. China is also constructing a 7.3 billion USD deep-water port and a 2.7 billion USD industrial area in a special economic zone at Kyaukpyu along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. To counterbalance China, India is taking over operations of Sittwe port in Myanmar. This will also be used for connecting India’s North Eastern states apart from achieving strategic interests.   The defense relations of both countries have also been growing. Both countries also undertake joint military exercises of the Army and Navy under the names IMBAX and IMNEX. According to a report by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute ( SIPRI , 2017), India is one of the top five arms exporters to Myanmar along with China, Russia, Israel, and Ukraine. Recent developments in the India-Myanmar bilateral defense cooperation include the sale of anti-submarine torpedoes to the Myanmar Navy and transferring of Russian-made Kilo-class diesel-electric Submarine INS Sindhuvir to enhance the capability of the Myanmar Navy. Both countries also signed an MoU in July 2019 to strengthen defense cooperation in training, joint surveillance, maritime security, etc.   The border is highly porous and poorly guarded. Located along remote and underdeveloped areas, It is vulnerable to insurgents and drugs and arms traffickers posing a challenge to India’s security. In fact, India had a Free Movement Regime agreement (FMR) with Myanmar allowing cross-border movement up to 16 km without a visa. It was started to promote people-to-people connections, given the shared ethnicity and culture of various communities on both sides of the border. However, recently, the central government has decided to scrap the same. Also, the government has decided to fence the whole Indo-Myanmar border. There have been clashes going on between Myanmar’s military regime and Myanmar’s rebel groups like the Arakan Army, which has security impacts on India, including cross-border movements of rebels and the Myanmar Army and the influx of refugees. There have been cases of drug trafficking, apart from Indian insurgents moving to the Myanmar side. All this led to the decision to make the borders impenetrable by India.  Another issue is of Rohingya Muslim ethnic community from the Rakhine state of western Myanmar. There have been various ethnic conflicts of Rohingyas with other ethnic groups. There was an anti-insurgent operation by the Myanmar military in 2017 against the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army, which led to widespread illegal migration of the Rohingya population to various countries including Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, and other nearby countries. Myanmar does not consider Rohingya Muslims among its 135 ethnic groups under its 1982 Citizenship Act. It considers them migrants from Bangladesh after Burmese independence or the 1971 war. As per estimates, approximately 40,000 Rohingyas are in India and have reached up to Jammu, Hyderabad, Delhi, Haryana, and UP, leading to internal security concerns in India.  Despite various close cooperation and some challenges, the relations between the two countries are broadly on a stable platform. There have not been many points of friction yet there has been much lower than potential cooperation between two countries.  The bilateral relations can be taken to higher levels and India can provide strong support to the people of Myanmar in their economic prosperity through cooperation in infrastructure, tourism, healthcare, technology, etc. At the same time, Myanmar can also help India in its security and strategic concerns.

Nationalization of the banking sector in India is one of the most important chapters of the Indian Economy. On January 1, 1949, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), which regulated the nation's central banking system, was nationalized. Immediately after the independence, with the first five-year plan in 1951, the government adopted a socialist path and required significant financial assistance from the banking industry. Up until that point, all Indian banks were private and located solely in large cities. They were all governed by industrialists, and between 1951 and 1968, the percentage of credit extended by private banks to the industrial sector doubled from 34% to 68%. While the share of agriculture in the entire credit was less than 2%. The nationalization of banks happened at a time when the Indian economy and politics were going through a very bad phase. The Indo-China War of 1962 and the Indo-Pak War of 1965 created immense pressure on public finances. At the same time, successive years of drought resulted in a shortage of food. Population was growing exponentially but the economic growth was very low. Under these circumstances, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi decided to nationalize banks. The objective was to free banks from private monopolies, promote and mobilize savings, create financial inclusion, develop rural areas, advance agriculture, and promote overall social equality. Subsequently, on 19th July 1969, the Indian government decided to nationalize 14 of India's major private sector banks. Later In 1980, the government took control of another 6 banks.  Consequences of nationalization of banks: A rise in public trust in banks:  Customers' confidence in the security of their money increased as a result of nationalized banks. As a result, the amount of capital placed in banks increased manifold. Rural development and the mobilization of funds:  Earlier banks were limited to profitable metropolitan areas, but after nationalization, they also entered remote and rural areas. These savings were mobilized by the government as a result of the branches' quick expansion. Development of Priority Sectors:  The extension of advances to priority sectors following the nationalization of banks is a significant shift. To achieve this, the banks developed several programs to lend money to small borrowers in priority industries such as retail commerce, small businesses, small-scale manufacturing, agriculture, etc. Low Profitability:  One of the main problems with banking following nationalization is that the nationalized banks either lose money or see their dividends decline. After nationalization, the commercial banks' profits (which were quite substantial in the 1950s and 1960s) decreased significantly. Low Efficiency:  The banking system now operates with a bureaucratic mindset as a result of nationalization. Nationalized banks frequently exhibit rigid conformity, excessive delays, lack of initiative and accountability. Thus, consequently, these banks are now less efficient. Growing NPAs:  The government's pressure at the top to implement even loss-making schemes, or fully waive loans in exchange for electoral advantages has created an NPA crisis in public sector banks. Public banks have witnessed many scams also. Also, political interference and bureaucracy in the functioning of the banking system have further worsened the NPA problem.

Plate Boundaries Plate boundaries are the surface trace of the zone of motion between two plates. Depending upon the movement of tectonic plates, plate boundaries are classified into 3 types constructive, destructive, and conservative plate boundaries, respectively.  Constructive plate boundaries These are also known as diverging plate boundaries , where two plates move away from each other as a result, a fissure develops, allowing hot molten magma to come up from the mantle and to form a new plate material. The fissure represents the zone of spreading since the upwelling of magma creates the new crust. The divergence of plates may take place in the middle of an ocean or continent. Divergent boundaries are the sites of seafloor spreading and rift valleys. At divergent plate boundaries in the ocean floor, magma rises upward-pushes/diverges two or more plates apart, and marks the formation of mid-oceanic ridges. The best-known example of divergent plate boundary is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge where the American plates are separated from the Eurasian and African plates. A rift valley is a lowland region, formed by the rifting of earth's tectonic plates. Rift valleys are found both on land and at the bottom of the ocean and are created by the process of seafloor spreading. Rift valleys differ from river valleys and glacial valleys in that they are created by tectonic activity and not the process of erosion. The Great Rift Valley system which stretches from the Middle East in the north to Mozambique in the south is a geologically active area. Rift valleys feature volcanos, hot springs, geysers, and frequent earthquakes. Destructive plate boundaries These are also known as convergent plate boundaries , where, two plates move towards each other. The character of boundaries and geological activities associated with them depends on the type of plate involved in the convergence.  Oceanic-oceanic convergence : In this collision, two oceanic plates converge and one plate bends downward beneath the other, this phenomenon is called Subduction. Subduction of the plate forming the ocean crust is the cause of trench which is formed immediately over the zone of subduction of the descending plate. At the depth between 150-200 kms melting of the descending plate takes place due to frictional heat and higher geothermal heat. Initially, tholeiitic lava (rich in K, lack of Al) comes out of oceanic crust melts, later on, Andesitic lava predominates, perhaps due to magmatic differentiation. Along with the downward plate, part of the trench sediments and some water is also carried down into the hotter environment. With the rise in temperature and pressure in higher depths, this water gets released and rises into the overlying plate causing partial melting of rock by lowering its melting point. Even if the original magma isn’t Andesitic, a part of it may differentiate into Andesite. Being less dense than the surrounding rock, the magma bodies rise slowly to the surface forming a curved line of volcanos that forms a string of volcanic islands (parallel to the already formed oceanic trench) known as Island arc . Between the Island arc and the continent lies a marginal ocean basin. The eruption of magma takes place, when the top of the downbent lithospheric plate comes in contact with the asthenosphere.  Accordingly, the horizontal distance between the island arc and the ocean trench varies. The angle of subduction determines the distance. The steeper the subduction angle shorter the distance between the arc and the trench. Similarly, when the subduction angle is gentle the arc-trench spacing also becomes increase.

India has a parliamentary form of government with a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The executive and judiciary in India play distinct but interconnected roles in the country's governance. While the executive formulates and implements policies, the judiciary ensures these policies and actions are by the Constitution and the rule of law. This separation of powers is essential for upholding democracy and protecting citizens’ rights in India. The Union Executive’s role in the Indian parliamentary system is extremely important. The President, Vice-President, Council of Ministers, and Attorney-General comprise the Union Executive. The Union Executive is included in Chapter I of Part V of the  Indian Constitution  (Articles 52 to 78). The President Article 52 of the Constitution provides for a President of India. He is the head of the Indian State, the first citizen of India, and acts as the symbol of unity, integrity, and solidarity of the nation. The President of India plays a dual role, serving as both the ceremonial head of the state and the guardian of the Constitution.  He is the Armed Forces Supreme Commander. Vice President According to Article 63, there shall be a Vice President. He performs a dual role as he is not only the Vice President but also the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The Vice President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha which means that he/she presides over the Rajya Sabha and performs the normal duties of a presiding officer. These include maintenance of order in the House, allowing members to speak and ask questions, and putting bills and motions to vote. Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers The Constitution of India provides for a parliamentary system of government and, therefore, divides the executive into two parts: the nominal and real executive. The President of India is the nominal executive and the Council of Ministers is the real executive which works under the leadership of the Prime Minister. Article 74 of the Constitution of India states that “There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as the head to aid and advise the President who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice: Provided that the President may require the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice, either generally or otherwise, and the President shall act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.” The State Executive The State Executive is the branch of state government in charge of administering the state and enforcing the law. The Governor serves as the official leader of the State Executive, while the Chief Minister leads the Council of Ministers and is the state’s attorney general. The legislature, the executive branch, and the judiciary make up the three branches of the government, which is built on the separation of powers. Enforcing laws passed by the legislature and managing state governance are roles assigned to the state executive. The State Executive encompasses of the Governor , Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, Advocate General of the State, and Non-Political Permanent Executive – the Civil Servants. The State’s major duty is to uphold the Rule of Law and keep the state’s law and order. It also makes policies and prepares for development. Although the legislation is the guardian of all finances, the executive is in charge of creating budgets and collecting and disbursing tax money. The executive’s main function is to supervise and direct the execution of the law. It is also responsible for formulating the state’s general policies. It makes all major appointments including judges of various State, High, and Supreme court(s) It also appoints chairman and members of the Union public, ambassadors, Air Force and Navy, and so on. Its military functions include exercising supreme command over the Navy, Army, and Air Force. Another important function of the executive is to grant honors and titles to the people in recognition of their commendable services to the country The executive branch carries out many critical functions in government work. It enforces laws, manages government agencies, programs, and employees, recommends new policies, proposes budgets, appoints leaders, negotiates with other countries, and commands the military. All these functions of the executive work together to carry out the will of elected representatives and serve the public through how the government runs.

Magadha emerged as a formidable power in northeast India, and gradually smaller principalities and republics merged within it. Disunity prevailed within the small northwestern principalities like Kambojas, Gandharas, and Madra and they fought against one another. Under such circumstances, the fertile land and easy mobility through the Khyber and Bolan pass attracted the attention of its neighbors.  The Achaemenid King Cyrus (558-529 BCE) was the first ruler to invade the sub-continent. According to Pliny, He destroyed the city of Kapisha/Begram (lying southeast of the Hindu Kush mountains).  Later, Persian King Darius  (516 BCE) annexed Punjab, west of the Indus and Sindh. The Greek historian Herodotus  (Father of Western History) mentions Gandhara and says that ‘ this area was the twentieth satrapy (province) of the Persian empire, and paid the tribute of 360 talents of gold, which was more than that from all other 20 provinces put together.  The Darius inscription at Persepolis, Behistun, and Hamadan reflect his relationship with India.  Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes I. The defeat of Darius III in the Battle of Arbela , Iraq (331 BCE) at the hands of Alexander brought an end to the Persian empire as well as the Persian control over the Indian provinces. Persian Impact on India  Paved the way for the future invasions of the Greek, Indo-Greek, Parthians, Kushans, and the Hunas.  The new form of writing known as Aramaic, written right to left was brought by Iranians. From this, the Kharosthi script was developed. Some of the Ashokan inscriptions in North-western India were written in both Aramaic and Kharosthi.  Persian sigloi-type coins were copied in India.  According to R.D. Banerji, the monuments of Ashoka’s time, especially the bell, bull, and lion-shaped capitals are similar to the Iranian models. Some scholars have highlighted the differences between the two such as:  The stone columns of the Mauryan pillared hall were without capitals whereas the columns of the pillared halls of Persepolis have elaborate capitals.  Achaemenian columns stand on bases, either shaped like an inverted lotus or plain rectangular or circular blocks. While the independent Mauryan columns have no base at all.  The Mauryan type of abacus and the placing of independently carved animal motifs on the top of the abacus is absent in the Achaemenian context.  Alexander’s Invasion (327-326 BCE) Herodotus and other Greek writers painted India as a fabulous land, which tempted Alexander to invade it. He also had a strong passion for geographical inquiry and natural history. He had heard that the Caspian Sea continued on the eastern side of India. He also wanted to solve the problem of the oceans, the limits of which were a puzzle to Greek geographers. No major united and strong resistance was put across to Alexander. Indians possessed no awareness of the importance of the borders.  Alexander entered India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BCE. King Ambhi of Taxila and all other Kings except (who fought the Battle of Hydaspas at Jhelum) surrendered to Alexander. Greek sources mention the defeat of King Puru (but this is debatable as to who defeated whom). When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers being terribly homesick and diseased, refused to go further. Alexander was forced to retreat, and his dream of an eastern empire remained unfulfilled. On the way back, there were military encounters with ganas such as Malavas and Shibi. Alexander finally reached the Indus Delta from where he took the land route toward Babylon through Gedrosia. He died in Babylon in 323 BCE.  Effects of Alexander’s invasion. He paved the way for the unification of India under Chandragupta Maurya.   Establishment of the cosmopolitan school of arts at Gandhara. He exposed India to Europe by opening four distinct lines of communication -three by land and one by sea.  Established direct contact between India and Greece in different fields.     References: A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Ancient and Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya Higher Secondary First year, Tamil Nadu Board Prateek Nayak Notes

In ecology, a biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions) or of different species (interspecific interactions). Biotic interaction between organisms is fundamental for the survival and functioning of an ecosystem and it determines the sustainability of the ecosystem.  Types of Biotic Interaction  Parasitism   It is a type of interaction between two species that results in damage and harm to one member and benefit to another member. As in the case of the tick-host relationship, the tick gains benefit by sucking blood while the host is harmed as it loses blood.  Ticks, lice, and mites are external parasites while tapeworms, roundworms, etc. are an example of internal parasites.  The life cycle of a parasite is quite complex; they need hosts (most the parasites make host weak and vulnerable to predation) and vectors in order to complete their life cycle, as in the case of a malarial parasite which requires a vector (mosquito) to spread to other hosts.  Commensalism In this type of relationship one species benefits without affecting the other.  Barnacles growing on the back of whales, orchids growing as epiphytes on some mango branches, cattle egrets and grazing cattle in close association, Sea anemones, and clownfish are some of the classic examples of Commensalism.  Mutualism In this type of relationship both the partners benefit from one another. When similar interaction occurs within a species, it is known as cooperation.  Examples- Rhizobium a bacterium that is found at the root nodules of a leguminous plant is a good example of Mutualism. In this relationship, the plant supplies the water, minerals, and food to the bacterium while Rhizobium fixes the atmospheric nitrogen that is used by the plant.  Lichens is a mutual relationship between algae and fungus. In this mutual cooperation, fungus gives protection and raw material for the preparation of the food while Green Algae synthesizes the food for both.  Pollination is also an example of Mutualism, as the pollinator gets the nutrition/food (nectar, pollen) from the plant, and the plant gets its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization thus helping the plant to reproduce similar kinds of species.  Saprophytism  In this kind of biotic interaction, certain organisms live on dead and decaying organic matter.  Dung Beetles, Vultures, Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoa are examples of Saprophytism.  Predation  In this type of Biological interaction, a predator feeds upon its prey, and in this type of relationship; one species is benefitted while the other is harmed. Although the predator may or may not kill its prey, the act of predation often results in the death of its prey, and the tissues of the prey are eventually consumed by the predator.  Example- An interaction between a Lion and a Deer results in predation. Sometimes a species can act as both a prey and predator. Like in the case of a snake, it becomes prey to a hawk while acting as a predator with a frog. Competition In this type of interaction, both species compete with each other for resources like food, shelter, and mating, and both species get harmed out of the process of competition.  Two species consume the same kind of resources and due to the limited availability of resources conflict arises between them Competition may also occur between two different species like Trees, shrubs, and herbs competing with each other for water, light, etc. Competition leads to the elimination of the less fit or the weaker species from the ecosystem (Survival of the fittest by Darwin).  Amensalism  In this relationship, one species is harmed while the other is neither harmed nor benefitted and remains unaffected.  When an organism excretes the chemicals as a part of the normal metabolism of its own, but which may severely impact other nearby species, this kind of relationship is seen.  Example- A large tree inhibits the growth of small plants lying nearby due to its shades, while small plants have no effect on the large tree.

Space Technology is a very important topic from which UPSC often asks questions.  It covers various topics like satellites, space shuttles, spaceflights, etc. Many helpful applications like weather forecasting, GPS, remote sensing, and DTH are only possible due to Space Technology.  Indian Space Research Program: Set up by Vikram Sarabhai with the objectives: Designing and Fabrication of satellites and development of launch vehicles Peaceful purposes of outer space Operational space services in a self-efficient manner Institutional Setup: The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was developed in 1962 under the guidance of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, to formulate a space program in India. ISRO and Its Prominent Regional Centre: It was founded in 1969 and operates as the primary research and development arm of the Department of Space, which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India while the Chairman of ISRO also acts as the executive of DoS. Some of the regional centers are: ISAC- ISRO Satellite Application Centre VSSC- Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram SDSC- Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota SAC- Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad LPSC- Liquid Propulsion System Centre, Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu ISTRAC- ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network, Bengaluru MCF- Master Control Facility, Bhopal (MP) and Hassan (Karnataka) NRSA- National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad ANTRIX: Antrix Corporation Limited: It is a commercial body of ISRO that helps in the commercialization of space products and other services of ISRO. Later in 1992, it was announced to be a private limited company.    New Space India Limited Council (NSIL): It was corporated in 2019 as a whole control of the Department of Space for using the research and development of NASA commercially.   Types of Satellite Orbits: Orbit Altitude Advantages Disadvantages Low Earth Orbit 50-1500 to 2000 km True globe coverage, efficient use of spectrum, low propagation delay Doppler Effect requires a large number of Satellites, a low lifetime Medium Earth Orbit 5000 to 12,000 km Lower path loss, and medium propagation delay, can cover a large area The Doppler Effect requires a large number of Satellites, a long deployment time,  Geosynchronous Orbit 35,786 km No Doppler effect covers most of the region of the earth relatively large propagation delay, large path loss, high launch cost High   Earth Orbit Beyond 35,786 km Earth Path loss is smaller, offers services to high altitude regions, long life Highest propagation delay, selected coverage area, high manufacturing and launch cost Satellite Launching System Satellite launching systems involve the use of rockets to transport satellites into space. These complex systems employ various technologies, including multistage propulsion, precise navigation, and payload deployment mechanisms. Rockets can be launched from terrestrial sites or mobile platforms at sea. As there is a sea on the eastern side of the east coast, launching systems are located on the east coast and possibly closest to the equator. Key players like SpaceX, NASA, and other global space agencies continually advance these systems, ensuring reliable access to space for communication, Earth observation, and scientific exploration satellites.

Being neighboring countries, India and Myanmar share historical, ethnic, cultural, and religious ties. They share a long land border of 1643 km and a maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal. Indian states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh share a border with  Kachin State, Sagaing Region, and Chin State of Myanmar. Myanmar was earlier called Burma.  (Its official name was changed from "Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989). Like other neighboring countries, Myanmar (erstwhile Burma) had cultural and historical relations with India. 90% of the Burmese population follows Theravada Buddhism. Burma was formally made a part of India by Britishers in 1886 after the third Anglo–Burmese war in 1885. However, it was separated from British India in 1937.  In the post-independence era, India established diplomatic relations with Burma in 1948 after it gained Independence from Britain. In 1951, both countries signed a Treaty of Friendship.  For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to historical and cultural connections along with the presence of a significant  Indian community  in Myanmar. A large population of Indian origin (according to some estimates about 2.5 million) lives in Myanmar. Also, as the land of Lord Buddha, India is a country of pilgrimage for the people of Myanmar.  India provided considerable support post-independence when Myanmar struggled with regional  insurgencies . In 1962, there was a coup in Myanmar (then Burma) and the military overthrew the elected government. (It should be noted that during 1958-60, the military was in charge of the country as the caretaker government). The overthrow of the democratic government by the Military led to strained ties. Like much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy. The Burmese Military government ordered the  expulsion  of the Burmese Indian community leading to strained ties with India and also further isolation from the world . The relations continued to be cold till 1987. However, during the same period, the two countries signed the Land Boundary Agreement (1967) and the Maritime Boundary Agreement (1986).  A breakthrough in relations occurred in 1987 when the then-Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited Myanmar. However, relations worsened after the military government’s reaction towards pro-democracy movements in 1988, which resulted in an influx of Burmese refugees into India. However, the relations started improving in the 1990s, especially after 1998. Indian Prime Ministers P.V. Narasimha Rao and Atal Bihari Vajpayee tried to establish warmer relations between the two nations as part of a wider foreign policy of increasing India's participation and influence in Southeast Asia.  This suited both India and Myanmar as India could increase its reach in Southeast Asia while Myanmar was able to reduce its external dependence on China and its world isolation while boosting its international image. The period of the late 1990s saw relations with Myanmar starting to mature as Myanmar started to diversify its foreign policy by reducing its dependence on China. Myanmar became a member of ASEAN and BIMSTEC in 1997. In 2001, the India-Myanmar Friendship Road was inaugurated. The 160 km Road was built by BRO and provides connectivity from Moreh (in Manipur) to Kalewa (in Myanmar). This was inaugurated during then external affairs minister Jaswant Singh's visit to Myanmar. This was the first high-level visit to Myanmar after Rajiv Gandhi’s visit. This road became the basis of a much larger project of the India-Myanmar-Thailand highway providing India land connectivity to southeast Asia. There were various high-level visits in the decade of the 2000s. Myanmar supported India for the permanent seat in UNSC and India restrained its response to the pro-democracy uprising of 2007 in Myanmar. Two countries also signed the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project in 2008, to connect Kolkata with Sitwe in Myanmar and then to Lashio in Myanmar via Kaladan river and then onto Mizoram in India. The project is partially operational with the inaugural vessel recently flagged off from Kolkatta to Sitwe Port.  The relations between the two countries improved further in the last decade as well. The military rule ended in 2011 and then President of Myanmar Thein Sein visited India. (Please note the military rule was reimposed in 2021). The visit was reciprocated by PM Manmohan Singh’s visit in 2012 wherein an MoU regarding the line of credit of US $500 million was signed along with other agreements including air connectivity between the two countries.   The relations got further boost with visits of State Councilor Aung San Suu Kyi and the President of Myanmar in President Htin Kyaw in 2016. Various agreements, including developments of various bridges in Myanmar on the Indo-Myanmar Friendship Highway, construction, and upgradation of the Kalewa - Yagi Road section which is part of the India-Myanmar – Thailand trilateral highway project, were signed.  Prime Minister Modi’s visit in 2017 focused on security and strategic interests between the two countries. India refused to comment on Rohingya issues against the Myanmar government (nowadays, the Rohingya issue is becoming a menace for India as well). The visit was reciprocated by then Myanmar President U Win Myint in February 2020 further deepening relations for both countries.

T he basic structure doctrine suggests that certain parts of the Indian Constitution form the core and have intrinsic value. Hence, they cannot be altered or removed from the Indian Constitution. Such parts form the basis and reflect the principles of the makers of the Constitution. Not only that, they also throw light on the basic tenets of constitutionalism in India, hence, referred to as the basic structure. This doctrine has been promulgated through a series of judgments, including the renowned case of Kesavananda Bharati. Thus, it does not have a limited scope. The application of the doctrine has evolved only through the judicial interpretation of the Constitution. The Hon’ble Supreme Court and the High Courts, through their writ jurisdiction, intervene and interpret the Indian Constitution to impart its true meaning.   The case of   Shankari Prasad(1951)   is among the initial cases of the Hon’ble Supreme Court evolving the basic structure doctrine in India. The Supreme Court opined that the Parliament had the power under Article 368 to modify any part of the Indian Constitution by way of constitutional amendment, including the fundamental rights. Thus, the position of law after this judgment was that the State had the power to take away/restrict the fundamental rights of people through a constitutional amendment and such an amendment would not be even nullified by  Article 13  of the Indian Constitution. In 1965, in the case of Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan,  the majority view held that fundamental rights could also be amended by the Parliament, both prospectively and retrospectively by virtue of its power under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution. In the landmark   I.C. Golaknath (1967) judgment ,  the majority view held that the fundamental rights could not be amended in any manner. Finally in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala and Anr . (1973)  the Court opined that the wide powers of the Parliament under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution were subjected to the basic structure doctrine. Any component forming part of the basic structure was not open to amendment by the legislature. The case saw the largest Constitutional Bench of 13 judges to decide upon the matter. Pursuant to 68 days of the hearing, the verdict of the case was passed with a ratio of 7:6. The Indira Gandhi vs Raj Narain case (1975 ) involved allegations of election malpractice against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections. The Supreme Court stated that having free and fair elections is a vital part of the basic structure. They explained that conducting elections fairly and without bias is important to support the democratic principles of the Constitution. The Court decided that the Parliament can make changes to the Constitution. But the Court also said that this power cannot be exercised in a way that will damage or destroy the basic structure. In another case, Minerva Mills vs Union Of India (1980 ), the Supreme Court ruled that the power of the parliament to amend the constitution is limited by the constitution. The Supreme Court of India has declared the rule of law as a basic structure of the constitution in the case of the Union of India (1992) , also known as the Mandal case. Hence the parliament cannot exercise this limited power to grant itself unlimited power. In the case of S.R. Bommai (1994),  the apex court reinforced the principles of federalism and democratic governance. These principles were declared to be integral to the basic structure of the Indian Constitution. The Keshavananda Bharati Judgment laid down the Basic Structure Doctrine and is treated equivalent as to the North Star of the Indian Constitution. So it can be very well concluded that the basic structure of the Constitution has changed over time since it was first established in the 1970s, with more and more rights being incorporated into it with each passing year. Thus, the underlying basic structure that is visible today is the result of years of court supervision of fundamental rights and the associated constitutional framework.

In our Previous articles, we discussed the major theories proposed at different times regarding the distribution of Oceans and Continents. Continuing the discussion we will learn about Plate Tectonics Theory Plate Tectonics Theory The basic concept of plate tectonics involves the movement of lithospheric plates and the geological activity associated with them, which helps us to understand the dynamic processes that shape the Earth’s surface, including the formation of continents, ocean basins, mountains, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. The solid upper layer of the mantle is hot and behaves like plastic and can flow. The earth’s crust (oceanic + continental) together with the upper layer of the mantle constitutes the lithosphere .  The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere .  The rigid lithosphere is capable of moving bodily over the asthenosphere and is disjoined into large segments or blocks extensively by faults or thrusts. The blocks are known as “lithospheric plates” which are in motion relative to each other. A tectonic plate may be a continental plate or an oceanic plate. The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into 7 major plates  and some minor plates. The Pacific plate The North American plate The South American plate The Indian-Australian-New Zealand plate The African with eastern Atlantic floor plate The Eurasian plate The Antarctic plate Some important minor plates  include: Cocos plate- between Central America and the Pacific plate Nasca plate- between South America and the Pacific plate Arabian plate- mostly Saudi Arabian landmass Philippine plate- between Asiatic and Pacific plate Caroline plate- between the Philippine and Indian plate Fuji plate- Northeast of Australia Juan De Fuca plate- South-East of North American plate A plate is a large, rigid slab of rock that moves slowly over the asthenosphere. The thickness of the plate is from 0 to 10 kms at ridges and 100-150kms elsewhere. Nearly all seismic, volcanic, and tectonic activities are localized around the plate margins and are associated with differential motions between adjacent plates. Plates move with velocities ranging from 1 to 6cm/year; plates move away from one another, slide past one another, or towards one another Where two plates diverge, we find extensional features, typically the ocean ridges symmetrical about the vertical axis. Where two plates converge and one is thrust beneath the other, we find island arcs-the huge asymmetric features which are the sites of greatest earthquakes, explosive volcanism, great topographic relief, and many other distinctive features. Where two plates slide past each other, there occurs transcurrent faults  i.e. the large strike-slip faults joining segments of ocean ridges or arcs.